Northwestern Frontier Research Articles

Chinese primers along the north-western frontier

Abstract By the second half of the first millennium CE, a substantial body of texts written in Literary Sinitic developed into a shared repertoire of writings throughout Central and East Asia. In no small part, this was the result of the spread of Buddhism, which, in many regions, was adopted in its Sinitic form and relied on Chinese versions of the scriptures. As part of the means to cope with Sinitic Buddhist texts, most states also adopted a range of auxiliary texts, including primers and dictionaries. While modern scholarship has directed substantial attention at the participation of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the world of Sinitic texts, it has placed much less emphasis on the western and north-western regions of what is now China. This article attempts to redress the imbalance and demonstrate not only that, at one point, Inner Asian states actively participated in the Sinographic world, but also that they did this through a similar process of adaptation to that documented elsewhere. Primers played a special role in this, in that they had a more immediate connection with the core competency of reading and writing.

Long-term spatiotemporal distribution characterization of atmospheric black carbon MERRA-2 concentration over China

Black carbon (BC), a component of atmospheric aerosols, strongly adsorbs solar radiation, thereby influencing atmospheric stability and air quality. In this study, the spatiotemporal distribution, historical trends, and influencing factors of BC concentration in China from 1980 to 2020 have been investigated using MERRA-2 (Modern-era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Vision2) reanalysis dataset, population distribution, and industrial statistics data. The annual total MERRA-2 BC concentration in China (averaging 1.08 μg/m3 over the study period) exhibited three distinct phases: slow growth (1980–1999, 0.02 μg/m3/year), rapid growth (2000–2007, 0.61 μg/m3/year), and gradual decline (2008–2020, -0.014 μg/m3/year). The BC concentration was consistently higher in autumn and winter than in spring and summer, being lowest in July (9.6 μg/m3) and highest in December (14 μg/m3). Spatially, the annual average BC concentration from 1980 to 2020 followed the order: central Yangtze River region (3.14 μg/m3) > eastern coastal region (2.72 μg/m3) > northeastern region (1.40 μg/m3) > western riverine region (0.69 μg/m3) > northwestern frontier region (0.31 μg/m3). High BC-concentration areas, mainly in the central and eastern regions, correlate with regions of vigorous human activities and high industrialization levels, confirming that human activity markedly influences BC pollution. Since 2013, the implementation of emission control strategies and adjustments in the energy structure in China had led to a significant decline in BC concentration. By revealing the spatiotemporal distribution and trends of BC concentration in China, this study provides valuable scientific insights for atmospheric science, environmental protection, and air pollution.

Micro Partitions: Interrogating ‘Punjabi Refugee’ Identities

This special section on micro partitions follows ‘the reduction in scale’ from macro in national to meso in regional and micro in micro-regional histories in the field of Partition studies through focusing on micro-narratives of Partition from Punjab, a region divided between India and Pakistan after the Partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The focus of the essays is on affective memories of Partition in testimonies and cultural representations to examine the microhistories of displaced persons in micro-regions in West Punjab, including the North Western Frontier Province (Kohat, Bannu, Derajat), South Punjab (Multan, Bahawalpur) and the Mewat region in India, resettled in metro and non-metro cities and towns in India, Pakistan and the UK, through the lens of microhistory or microstoria and affect theories. The section hopes to examine the Partition’s affective charge embodied in ‘vernacular’ languages and representational forms left out of print cultures, 1 which include both traditional genres such as ritual theatre, folk-songs, folk music, folk-tales and proverbs as well as contemporary ones like popular music, ritual practices, festivals and pilgrimage sites through which communities from these micro-regions have represented Partition’s collective trauma. It draws on the methods of microhistory to closely analyse narratives of small local events, communities and neighbourhoods in Punjab’s micro-regions and subregions to connect the stories of these small places and ‘little’ people with the macro-narrative or grand narrative of Partition, so as to inquire what microhistory can bring to the understanding of Partition, as well as whether the micro-narratives relate to or throw new light on metanarratives. 2

Wood-Use Strategies at a Han Dynasty Military Outpost: New Archaeological Evidence from Shichengzi, Xinjiang

ABSTRACTThe study analyses wood samples recovered from diverse archaeological contexts (a gate, tomb and kiln) at the Shichengzi site, an Eastern Han Dynasty garrison in modern-day Xinjiang dating from the 1st to 2nd centuries AD. The results show extensive exploitation of a single species of conifer (Picea sp.) by Shichengzi residents. The selection and utilisation of this identical species suggest, on the one hand, the widespread use of Picea for building, artefacts and fuel at Shichengzi. It also suggests that Picea's general availability was exploited by Shichengzi's planners. This study offers the first clear evidence for timber-use strategies among the north-western frontier populations of the Han Empire.

Animal Use Strategies in the Longshan Mountain Region of Northern China during the First Millennium BC: A Zooarchaeological Analysis of Yucun.

The first millennium BC saw the expansion of the Western Zhou dynasty in its northwestern frontier, alongside the rise and development of the Qin State in the Longshan Mountain region of northern China. Exploring the subsistence practices of these communities is crucial to gaining a better understanding of the social, cultural, and political landscape in this region at the time. While much of the research to date has focused on the Qin people, the subsistence practices of the Zhou people remain poorly understood. In this study, we analyzed animal remains from Yucun, a large settlement site associated with the Zhou people, located to the east of the Longshan Mountain. These animal remains were recovered in the excavation seasons of 2018-2020. Our results show that pigs, dogs, cattle, caprines, and horses, which were the major domestic animals at Yucun, accounted for over 90.8% of the animal remains examined in terms of the number of identified specimens (NISP) and 72.8% in terms of the minimum number of individuals (MNI), with cattle and caprines playing dominant roles. In terms of the taxonomic composition and the mortality profiles of pigs, caprines, and cattle, Yucun shared similarities with Maojiaping and Xishan, two contemporaneous Qin cultural sites located to the west of the Longshan Mountain, and differ from other farming societies in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River valley. Considering the cultural attributes and topographic conditions of these various sites, these findings imply that environmental conditions may have played a more significant role than cultural factors in shaping the animal-related subsistence practices in northern China during the first millennium BC.

The Fragility of Peace: Song China's Northwestern Frontier and Erosion of the Chanyuan Paradigm in the Mid-Eleventh Century

Abstract The Chanyuan Covenant of 1005 that ended decades of war between Song and Liao precipitated a new political model that, from the Song perspective, exchanged wealth, territory, and dynastic pride in return for peace along the northern frontier, civilian sovereignty over a long-dominant military class, and the replacement of a culture of arms with the love of books. That “Chanyuan Paradigm” survived the Qingli war of 1040–1044 with the Tangut Xi Xia, but was steadily overturned in the expansionist wars promoted by Shenzong and his sons from 1068 through the fall of the Northern Song in 1127. This article argues that the fragility of the Chanyuan-style peace did not stem from the aspirations of a revanchist emperor and his confidantes, but was rather the consequence of the intrinsic difficulties of maintaining peace in a world of new players, internecine political contests, and shifting geopolitical alliances that characterized the mid-eleventh century.

Ancient India and Physiography : A Historical Review of Land and Landmark – Tarain

“Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat” is the new day slogan cherishing our Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic and Republic India of the 21st century. The chronicles of Bharat which defined the pathways indeed corroborates the times when our motherland was hailed as Sindhu and Hindustan. Every aspect of the Indian geography defined in the domain of the North-Western Frontier led to the addition of a new chapter describing the reign of a new dynasty with a foreign invader on the land of Bharat. These routes built to provide a voyage to our land firmly acted as a catalyst of metamorphosis in terms of physiography of Bharat. The passes set in the mountain ranges of the Himalayas were a testimony of the scars of invaders on our soil. One such holocaust of history is the Battle of Tarain I and II (1191–1192 A.D.) between Muhammad Ghori and Prithvi Raj Chauhan. Invaders crossing the rugged borders making their way to Tarain leading to the heart of our motherland shaped the history of Bharat indeed was highly influenced by the physiography of ancient India. Furthermore, the globe connected through globalization is often regarded as a brainchild of the 21st century economists. Although, the genesis of trade and commerce which connected the landmasses are buried under the layers of historical texts in the illustrations labeled as the famous Silk Route. India, the hub of education, innovation and heritage was a center point taking hold of attention of scholars and philosophers. After months of travelling their chronicles became reflections of the past for the future generations to redraw the borders of Bharat. Strabo, Pliny and Megasthenese each elaborated the frontiers with their lenses describing India as snow capped mountains of the Himalayas crowned in the North, Rajputana in the West, Kamrup in the east in the Ganges basin and Cape Camorin in the South. Hence, the dominance of Bharat in relation to its contemporaries was built on culture and heritage which developed from the physiography as well as its position in the international waters.

Multi-technique analysis of pigments on sandstone sculptures: Renaissance re-painting of a Roman relief

The Antonine Wall was commissioned by the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius around 142 CE and stretches for c. 60 km across the central belt of Scotland, marking the Empire’s most north-western frontier. This vanguard research reports on the materials referred to by Antiquarian sources as having been applied during the sixteenth century for the redecoration of an iconic Distance Sculpture that was once embedded into the mural barrier. Portable non-invasive technologies, including pXRF and in-situ microphotography were deployed. These techniques were further supplemented by micro-sampling for SEM/EDS, FTIR–ATR and microscopy of embedded cross-sections. The validity of applying these complementary techniques has been confirmed. They provide a comprehensive account of the polychromy present, including pigments that could have been applied during the Roman period and others that were only available from the fifteenth or sixteenth Centuries. The work has confirmed stratigraphic sequencing of the pigments which will, in due course, permit the digital reconstruction of how this Classical relief sculpture would have been adorned during the Renaissance.

Mixed economy and dried foods: Dental indicators reveal Heishuiguo Han Dynasty population's environmental adaptation to the semi‐arid region of northwestern China

AbstractSituated in the middle Hexi corridor, a vital passage of the ancient Silk Road, the Heishuiguo site was a military town on the northwestern frontier of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). To understand the lifestyle of the Heishuiguo population, levels of dental caries and tooth wear were assessed. Archaeological findings and historical records revealed a mixed subsistence strategy dependent upon agricultural production and domesticated animals at Heishuiguo. This was also supported by evidence from stable isotope analysis. Teeth are an excellent material for the reconstruction of ancient diet, subsistence strategies, and social behavior. The rate of dental caries in the Heishuiguo population fell into the range of mixed economic population. Tooth wear analysis, however, shows a conflicting result. Anterior tooth wear is particularly severe at Heishuiguo, indicating subsistence practices similar to hunter‐gatherers and modern Xinjiang Kazakhs. As a major Han garrison, the majority of the Heishuiguo populace were either immigrants or the descendants of immigrants. Their diet, with rich nutritional value, portability, and adapted to long‐term preservation needs, suited environmental requirements at Heishuiguo. However, these foods generally required heavier use of cutting and tearing motions with the anterior teeth. Frequent occlusion (alignment) as a result of such actions resulted in severe tooth wear. Such tooth wear may be attributed to a preference for tough, dry foods, such as nang cake along the Heishuiguo population, as well abundant meat consumption. Such a dietary culture resulted from the hot and dry climate, complex geographical conditions, and abundant resources at Heishuiguo. The result was that a unique lifestyle and dietary culture gradually formed at Heishuiguo due to this creative adaptation to the local environment.

FRONTIER DYNAMICS IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE

Climatic changes (aridization) in the Early Bronze Age allowed the population of the North-Western Black Sea coast to use natural resources in a greater volume than before. On the one hand, steppe ecosystems were such resources. The expansion of the steppe zone and its transformation stimulated the development of cattle-breeding economy. Therefore, part of the agricultural Late Tripolye population chose to change territory (relocation to the Northwestern Black Sea coast) and switch to a new for themselves economic and cultural type (mobile cattle breeding) to overcome the crisis situation. In our opinion, the analysis of the archaeological sources and the cultural and ecological situation indicate that the North-Western Frontier can be attributed to the cattle-breeding type. Taking into account the analysis of the colonization attractors and the relations between the newcomers (Yamna culture) and the local population in the zone of the Balkan-Carpathian Frontier, we can conclude that it belongs to the trade type. Apparently, the population, having advanced from the North-Western Black Sea coast, built peaceful relations with its partners, organically fitting into the context of the communities of South-Eastern Europe. Consideration of interrelations of the Yamna culture population with the autochthonous population demonstrates the multivariance of contacts and the absence of uniform norms and scenarios. Each micro-region had its own peculiarities, which do not indicate the replacement of the local population by aliens. The conclusions of geneticists about the total migration of the Yamna population to Central and Southeastern Europe, which led to the replacement of genetics and the formation of new cultures, can be refuted not only in terms of archaeology, but also in the framework of the frontier theory. The starting point of the frontier is the meeting of different communities and the interaction between them, which leads to processes of transformation. This is why understanding the frontier as a process allows researchers to move from its spatial localization to the social aspect. The theory of the frontier opens wide prospects for historical and archaeological research.

The Conundrum of Pak-Afghan Border: A Historical Perspective

The territory has remained a bone of contention between modern nation states. Pakistan and Afghanistan have also no exception from it. Pak-Afghan relations have been in turmoil since the day when Afghanistan refused to accept Pakistan as a country and voted against its newly independent neighbor in the United Nations. It all happened in lieu of that Afghanistan is of the view that the North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP), currently known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Baluchistan and some areas of Punjab are the parts of Afghan territory. Afghanistan breached all the previous agreements made over the Durand Line calling it just an imaginary line. Based on this entire scenario, this research study analyzes the changing dynamics of Pak-Afghan relationships in different eras driven by different factors. It discusses the pre-colonial impacts on the relationship between the two countries, it also probes what happened right after 1947 and then highlights the impacts of 9/11 tragic events. Reviewing the existing literature and the opinions of different political scientists on this issue, this study discusses the historical background of Pak-Afghan borderland. Moreover, it also attempts to shed light upon the geostrategic importance of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the region so that the political decisions on the persisting issue are made in a way that they favor the interests of both the states. This paper also elucidates the literature available on the colonial legacy of the Durand Line.

Ethnic Issues in China's Northwest Frontier Regions and Its Solutions

The Northwestern Frontier of China is different from the Northwestern China in that it is only a part of the Northwestern China that is close to the border of the country. The geographic space of the northwestern frontier in different periods of Chinese history has changed with the effective governance of the Chinese central government. The ethnic issues in the northwestern frontier have their basic historical background and time and space. The types of ethnic issues in China’s northwest frontier areas are not the same, but they are basically manifested in internal socio-economic and cultural development issues and external ethnic interaction issues, as well as transnational (border) ethnic issues and ethnic religious issues, such as ethnic separatism and extreme religion. Doctrine and violent terrorism are only part of it, not all of it. To this end, it is necessary to "prescribe the right medicine" for different types of ethnic problems and formulate different effective "prescriptions" to solve ethnic problems in order to realize the "Chinese dream" of harmonious socialist ethnic relations in China.

Culturele diversiteit aan de Neder-Germaanse Limes

Summary The forts and surrounding villages situated on the Lower German Limes were inhabited by people with very diverse ethno-cultural backgrounds. They came from all corners of the Roman Empire, and beyond, to the north-western frontier. In this article four case studies are put in the spotlight to illustrate the high rate of cultural diversity among these military communities.

Literate Community in Early Imperial China: The Northwestern Frontier in Han Times by Charles Sanft

Reviewed by: Literate Community in Early Imperial China: The Northwestern Frontier in Han Times by Charles Sanft Sujane Wu (bio) Charles Sanft. Literate Community in Early Imperial China: The Northwestern Frontier in Han Times. Albany: State University of New York, 2019. xxiii, 252 pp. Hardcover $90.00, isbn 978-1-4384-7513-4-252 pages. As implied in the title of his book, Literate Community in Early Imperial China: The Northwestern Frontier in Han Times, Charles Sanft undertakes his tasks on four aspects—literacy, community, early Han era (time frame), and the northwestern frontier (location)—by using the archaeological discoveries in the area located within modern Gansu Province and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in recent decades. Through his case study on the excavated written texts in various forms (e.g., edits and private letters) and on a variety of [End Page 105] materials (e.g., silk, paper, wood, and bamboo strips), the author argues that in the northwestern frontier—a border region being "far removed from the centers of culture and politics" (p. xv)—during the Han times, men and women at the lower social level were in fact meaningfully interacting with text. Furthermore, Sanft also argues that all these non-elite people (i.e., local residents and soldiers as well as their families from other regions) worked as a "community," rather than as individuals, when they encountered an opportunity to engage with texts. In addition to the introduction and conclusion, this book consists of eight chapters that can be summarized as follows: The first two chapters elaborate on the major theme—that is, the not-elite people's interaction with the texts that occurred not in the central power-holder location. While chapter 1 expounds on the meanings of "literacy and community," chapter 2 explains the significance of given time period and location studied. For the remaining six chapters that follow, the author provides his close examination and interpretation to a variety of excavated texts—namely, posted texts; statements of individuals and groups; composite texts; practical texts; cultural texts; and private letters—and in each chapter, he focuses on one kind of text and offers his interpretation and analyses. In chapter 1 titled "Interacting with Text in Early Imperial China and Beyond," the author sets up a framework for his case study on the border region and elaborates on the reasons behind his approach. In this chapter, he also notes that he wants to reconsider and redefine the word "literacy" when it is used in a distant past in China. He says, "This chapter makes the case for considering reading, including reading aloud; listening to others read aloud; writing; and dictation as different ways of doing one thing: interacting with text" (p. 1). That said, he redefines and broadens the meaning of "literacy" in this book. He remarks, by referring to Nicholas Orme's statement, that our common (and narrow) understanding of literacy as an individual's ability to both read and write is "because we live in a society that places an emphasis on people as individuals" (p. 21). He argues that when the concept of "literacy" is applied to the distant past, we need to think from a more collective perspective. He further emphasizes that "thinking in terms of community rather than individuals also provides a way to work around the intractable questions connected with determining rates of literacy" (p. 22). A "literate community" thus denotes how a group of people, being in "physical closeness," interacts with texts (p. 23). In chapter 2, the author offers the intellectual and historical "contexts and sources" for his case study in which he focuses on the excavated documents from the four commandaries—Zhangye 张掖, Dunhuang 敦煌, Wuwei 武威, and Jiuquan 酒泉—four newly established Han commandaries郡 in the northwestern border region. The function of this chapter, as he notes, is to give the reader a background in Han military presence in this area and an overview [End Page 106] of how the documents produced and transmitted among people (and how people interacted with them)—all the information necessary to understand his approach to the main chapters (3-8) in the book, which will be briefly discussed later. The author begins his close examination...

Floristic composition and biological spectrum of Keran - a remote valley of northwestern Himalaya

The Himalayas are one of the youngest and richest ecosystems on earth with a variety of species and forest types due to the varying altitude, topographic, and climatic conditions. The present study was aimed to investigate the floristic composition and biological spectrum of Keran valley, a region nestled in the northwestern frontiers of Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Floristically, a total of 183 species were recorded, out of which 55 were aliens. Herbaceous growth form was dominant (67%) and therophytes were the dominant (37%) life form. Likewise, mesophylls (34%) followed by nanophylls (29%) and microphylls (27%) were major leaf size categories; and the simple leaf lamina type was recorded in majority of the species (65%). Almost 1/3rd of the total species pool was growing in the forest habitats, while as the 2/3rd occur within the rest 9 habitat types which were largely human-modified. The vegetation phenology observed during different seasons revealed that most of the species were dominant in summer season (37%), followed by spring (29%), autumn (21%) and winter (13%). The present study provides baseline information on the plant diversity in this hitherto unexplored region of northwestern Himalaya.

PORTRAITS OF A PARTHIAN KING: ROCK-RELIEFS AND THE MOUNTAIN FORTRESSES OF RABANA-MERQULY IN IRAQI KURDISTAN

This article presents detailed illustrations of two rock-reliefs from the neighbouring sites Rabana and Merquly, located on the flanks of Mt. Piramagrun in Iraqi Kurdistan. Both matching sculptures are aligned with perimeter fortifications that enclose substantial architectural remains. Based on numismatic parallels, supported by archaeological evidence, it is proposed that these depictions of near life-size figures represent an anonymous Arsacid King of Kings from the early first millennium (c.a.d.50-150), who was credited with construction of the mountain fortresses. Rabana and Merquly together form an important landscape of settlement on the north-western frontier of the Parthian Empire.

Prince Manggala – The Forgotten Prince of Anxi

AbstractManggala (忙哥剌 d. 1278）was the third son of Qubilai Qa’an (r. 1260–1294) and his chief wife, Chabi Qatun (察必 d. 1281). Although he was not the crown prince he ruled over a large and strategic territory between the frontiers of the Southern Song before it was fully conquered, and the northwestern frontier, where some of the Mongol princes still challenged Qubilai’s legitimacy as the Great Khan. In spite of this, Prince Manggala does not have a biography in theYuanshi, and is mainly remembered as the father of Prince Ananda, Qubilai’s grandson, famous for embracing Islam. However, juxtaposing sources from different parts of the Mongol empire to compile Prince Manggala’s biography shows that he appears to have been a governor and capable military commander, who established his own princely administrative system,Wangxiangfu(王相府), showed interest in both Islam and Buddhism and addressed the various peoples and religions in his heterogeneous domain differently, thereby enhancing his legitimation. Manggala’s annotated biography can expand our knowledge of the role and status of princes in the Yuan dynasty (元代 1271–1368), as well as shed light on both administration and cross-cultural contacts in northwest China during the early Yuan era.

“One Belt One Road” and Central Asia: A New Trend in Internationalization of Higher Education?

China’s One Belt One Road (OBOR) strategy is the latest trend in international relations, and it is making a real impact on higher education in Central Asia. This article discusses the impact of three aspects of the plan: Chinese funding for study abroad, the Confucius Institutes, and the role of Xinjiang, China’s northwestern frontier.

“One Belt One Road” and Central Asia: A New Trend in Internationalization of Higher Education?

China’s One Belt One Road (OBOR) strategy is the latest trend in international relations, and it is making a real impact on higher education in Central Asia. This article discusses the impact of three aspects of the plan: Chinese funding for study abroad, the Confucius Institutes, and the role of Xinjiang, China’s northwestern frontier.

Fabricating Legitimacy in a Peripheral Regime: Imperial Loyalism and Regionalism in the Northwestern Borderlands Under the Rule of the Former Liang (301-376)

The fall of the Western Jin empire (265–316) in the early fourth century gave rise to unusually complex issues of political legitimacy, allegiance, and identity. In the ensuing turmoil, a cluster of regional polities emerged in north China, among which the Former Liang kingdom (301–376) ruled by the Zhang family provides an intriguing case of study. The rulers of this northwestern frontier state made use of the Jin official titles they held to project the image of being Jin loyalists as a means to amass support from former Jin subjects. At the same time, the Zhangs capitalized on the long distance between them and the Jin imperial court-in-exile in the lower Yangzi region, and the centrifugal political trends to create a fait accompli on their own terms of maintaining their dynastic rule in the northwest. To pursue its own survival, the Former Liang compromised with the so-called barbarian states, which were the instigators of toppling the Western Jin state. The political legitimacy and diplomatic stance of this frontier regime thus oscillated between imperial loyalism and regionalism. Analyzing how the Former Liang played such a complex game and sought regional advantage under the guise of imperial loyalty, this paper provides a case study of the strategy of “layered legitimacy” employed by a peripheral regime in early medieval China.