North-central Namibia Research Articles

Change in Marriage Behaviour in North-Central Namibia 1925–2009

Namibia is the only country in Africa for which historical data is available to describe the change in marriage behavior since the 1920s. The aim of this article is to describe and to understand how the age at first marriage changed and how it was related to cohabitation since the 1920s in Namibia. The description of changes is based on parish register material and the family reconstitution method. The mean age at first marriage was over 20 for both sexes as early as the 1920s. In 1945–49, the mean age at first marriage started to increase, reaching about 29 for men and 24 for women at the end of the 1950s. The explanation for the increase was labor migration. The new cohabitation model was introduced from the end of the 1970s to the 1980s. Features of this model were cohabitation before marriage, late marriage age, a low married proportion of the population and high proportion of premarital births.

Wildlife activity patterns and encroaching woody vegetation response to bush thinning on farmlands in north-central Namibia

The Namibian savannah ecosystem has experienced considerable anthropogenic pressures, which have resulted in the disruption of key ecological processes, and consequently, the proliferation of a dense vegetation structure, commonly known as bush encroachment. Approximately 45 million hectares of land have been affected, which has caused a significant decline in the grazing capacity, poor economic returns for the farmers, and loss of suitable wildlife habitat. Restoration thinning, a method that involves the selective removal of excess trees/shrubs, has been applied to counteract the negative effects associated with this phenomenon. This thesis aimed to assess the effect of thinning on (a) the activity patterns of local ungulates and predators, (b) the encroaching woody vegetation in terms of (i) regeneration, and (ii) structure, abundance, and habitat sighting lines, in a savannah habitat in the north-central region. Generalised linear mixed-effects models (GLMM) and linear mixed-effects models (LME) were used for statistical analysis. Results showed that thinned areas had overall greater wildlife activity. Thinned areas also had reduced tree/shrub abundance, which was significant for the mature height classes. Natural regeneration was rapid in thinned areas, where the abundance of young cohorts was 34% greater than non-thinned areas. In the thinned areas, red umbrella thorn (Vachellia reficiens) was significantly reduced but umbrella thorn (Vachellia tortilis) numbers increased. Tree/shrub densities in the thinned areas fell within the commonly accepted range for a 400 mm rainfall area (600–750 tree equivalents (TE) ha–1). Thinning significantly modified the dense thornbush to an open vegetation structure with a low woody canopy cover that favours grass growth and provides greater sighting lines for open savannah wildlife. This thesis demonstrated that thinning was effective in controlling bush encroachment and could be used as a method to restore other affected areas. However, periodic post-thinning management is recommended to control the established samplings.

Performance of Rice Genotypes under Temporally Variable Wetland Salinity Conditions of a Semiarid Sub-Saharan Climatic Environment

In semiarid regions, soil salinity, like drought, restricts crop productivity, causing food shortages among most inhabitants—the smallholder subsistence farmers. Seasonal wetlands formed in these regions during the rainy seasons could be utilised for rice (Oryza spp.) cultivation to increase food security, but rice is sensitive to salinity. Field and greenhouse-pot experiments were performed at the University of Namibia-Ogongo Campus, North-Central Namibia, to evaluate rice genotypes’ responses to seasonal wetland salinity. The field experiments assessed 16 rice genotypes for growth during the dry season and grain production during the rainy season, in saline and non-saline (control) seasonal wetlands. The saline-wetland salinity was predominantly NaCl; electrical conductivity levels increased from 2.8 dS m−1 (rainy season) to 34.3 dS m−1 (dry season), resulting in a 0–14% dry-season plant survival rate. The rainy-season wetland salinity decreased paddy yields in all rice genotypes; however, Pokkali produced the highest paddy and relative yields. The pot experiment assessed CG14 (salt-sensitive) and Pokkali (salt-tolerant) genotypes for growth using soils collected bi-monthly from the saline wetland. The rainy-season soil salinity reduced shoot growth in CG14 but did not affect growth in Pokkali, while the dry-season salinity killed both genotypes. The results of this study suggest the possibility of cultivating the salt-tolerant rice genotype, Pokkali, in the saline wetland during the rainy season due to salt dilution; however, the dry-season salinity levels would be detrimental to rice. More salinity-tolerance screening studies are warranted, in order to increase rice production and food security in Namibia and other flood-prone semiarid regions worldwide.

Response of woody vegetation to bush thinning on freehold farmlands in north-central Namibia

Bush encroachment affects much of the Namibian woodland landscape, causing significant loss of open savannah habitat and farm profits. Thinning of the trees/shrubs is recommended; however, research is required to identify the overall efficacy and effects of this method on the woodland habitat. We aimed to examine the effect of the thinning strategy applied on the vegetation structure of encroaching tree/shrub species, as well as the sighting lines of the habitat. Vegetation surveys were done on three freehold farms in north-central Namibia. The study utilised a combination of a blocked and split-plot study design: each block consisted of a pair of thinned and non-thinned plots with multiple subplots. Thinned plots had been manually thinned, with a post-thinning age of three years or more. Results revealed that tree/shrub abundance differed between species; thinned areas had the least abundance and overall species-treatment interactions were significant. Thinning caused a significant reduction in overall tree/shrub densities, settling within the recommended range for the area. Thinning also significantly reduced the average tree/shrub height, canopy area, medium-sized trees/shrubs, and increased sighting lines. This confirms a bush encroachment mitigation strategy that favours grass cover, and wildlife that rely on longer sighting lines for safety or when hunting.

Exploring the benefits and dis-benefits of climate migration as an adaptive strategy along the rural-peri-urban continuum in Namibia

The scale of climate migration across the Global South is expected to increase during this century. By 2050, millions of Africans are likely to consider, or be pushed into, migration because of climate hazards contributing to agricultural disruption, water and food scarcity, desertification, flooding, drought, coastal erosion, and heat waves. However, the migration-climate nexus is complex, as is the question of whether migration can be considered a climate change adaptation strategy across both the rural and urban space. Combining data from household surveys, key informant interviews, and secondary sources related to regional disaster, demographic, resource, and economic trends between 1990 and 2020 from north central and central dryland Namibia, we investigate (i) human migration flows and the influence of climate hazards on these flows and (ii) the benefits and dis-benefits of migration in supporting climate change adaptation, from the perspective of migrants (personal factors and intervening obstacles), areas of origin, and areas of destination. Our analysis suggests an increase in climate-related push factors that could be driving rural out-migration from the north central region to peri-urban settlements in the central region of the country. While push factors play a role in rural-urban migration, there are also several pull factors (many of which have been long-term drivers of urban migration) such as perceived higher wages, diversity of livelihoods, water, health and energy provisioning, remittances, better education opportunities, and the exchange of non-marketed products. Migration to peri-urban settlements can reduce some risks (e.g. loss of crops and income due to climate extremes) but amplify others (e.g. heat stress and insecure land tenure). Adaptation at both ends of the rural–urban continuum is supported by deeply embedded linkages in a model of circular rural–urban-rural migration and interdependencies. Results empirically inform current and future policy debates around climate mobilities in Namibia, with wider implications across Africa.Graphical abstract

Habitat thresholds for successful predation under landscape change

ContextHabitat loss and alteration affect wildlife populations worldwide. Bush encroachment alters landscapes and threatens arid and semi-arid grasslands, but its effects on predator–prey relationships and carnivore community ecology are not well understood. Predation strategies of large predators, for example high-speed pursuits versus ambush from short distances, are likely to be affected differently by bush encroachment.ObjectivesWe assessed how bush encroachment affects overall predation success of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus) in a savanna landscape under variable fractional woody cover (FWC). We tested if predation success remained relatively unchanged for leopards across a gradient of FWC, and whether cheetah predation was most successful at low to intermediate cover and varied seasonally.MethodsBelly scores of predators were measured from camera-trap images collected over 7 years in north-central Namibia and used to index predation success. We derived predicted belly score probabilities as a function of FWC, which was measured using a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)-derived satellite data layer.ResultsPredicted leopard predation success was highest at 0.27–0.34 FWC in the dry season, potentially due to lower prey density in highly covered areas and decreased prey catchability in low cover. Predicted cheetah predation success was highest at 0.24–0.28 FWC in the wet season, potentially due to increased landscape openness, high availability of habitat margins for visualising and stalking prey, and decreased kleptoparasitism by leopards. These results highlight optimal habitat cover thresholds that favour lower FWC for cheetah than for leopard.ConclusionsThe findings indicate that landscape heterogeneity is important for predation success of cheetahs and leopards, suggesting that habitat management should focus on bush control efforts to maintain intermediate levels of bush cover.

Distribution and dynamics of the Cynodon dactylon invasion to the cultivated fields of pearl millet in north-central Namibia

In north-central Namibia, pearl millet cultivation is critical for the subsistence of the local people. In recent years, pearl millet cultivation affected by Cynodon dactylon has been observed in the area. In this study, we examined the background and impact of C. dactylon on agriculture in this region. Our study showed that there would be almost no pearl millet harvest if C. dactylon dominated the fields. The distribution of C. dactylon was spatially skewed within the region, and the degree of weed damage varied between households. Analysis of the distribution of C. dactylon and the land characteristics of each household revealed that the indigenous land unit and the year in which the local people migrated were influential factors. The expansion of C. dactylon is an agronomic problem and is affected by several factors, including the human community structure, diversity of the natural environment, and recent social changes.

The potential of fragipans in sustaining pearl millet during drought periods in north-central Namibia

Abstract. Sandy soils with fragipans are usually considered poorly suited for agriculture. However, these soils are cultivated in Namibia as they can secure a minimum harvest during droughts. In order to understand the hydrological influence of fragipans in these soils, Ehenge, their soil moisture content was measured for 4 months. These data were then compared to a deep soil without fragipan, Omutunda, which is more productive during normal years but less productive during droughts. The results illustrate that the combination of sandy topsoil and shallow fragipan has beneficial effects on plant-available water during dry periods. Three reasons can be determined: (i) high infiltration rate in the sandy topsoil, (ii) prevention of deep drainage by the fragipan, and (iii) limitation of evaporation losses through the sand. Consequently, transferring these findings to other dry, sandy areas with fragipans, with respective consequences on farming practices, crop productivity, and food security, should be possible.

Local-Scale Variation in Land Use Practice Supports a Diverse Carnivore Guild on Namibian Multiple-Use Rangeland

Many rangelands worldwide are threatened by human population growth, so there is an urgent need for understanding how we can preserve functional diversity across these systems. The conservation and restoration of mammalian carnivores (order Carnivora) is critical because they impart important trophic cascading effects. Land use practice on rangelands may determine carnivore distributions and abundances; thus, to effectively facilitate coexistence between carnivores and humans, it is essential to understand carnivore community functioning in human-dominated landscapes. We conducted a camera trapping survey on multiple-use rangeland in north-central Namibia to investigate the spatial ecology of free-ranging carnivores in a farming system that comprises both livestock farming activities and wildlife-based land uses. We hypothesized that carnivore diversity and occupancy would be determined by farm type and predicted the associations of carnivore distributions with covariates related to resource availability, intraguild interactions, and anthropogenic influence. We considered single-season occupancy models and hypothesized that in this semiarid study system, seasonality had profound effects on the spatial ecology of carnivores. Our results show that Namibian multiple-use rangeland supported a diverse carnivore guild. Carnivore diversity and occupancy were generally similar across farm types, suggesting that the carnivore community assemblage in our study area was homogeneous. Local-scale variation in land use practices did not limit carnivore distributions, which could be key to maintaining ecological integrity of rangelands. The effect of seasonality suggested that carnivore space use on Namibian rangelands was influenced by availability of dry season resources. In addition, carnivores were dependent on natural resources, showed complex interactions with intraguild members, and had seasonally contrasting associations with anthropogenic activities. Namibian multiple-use rangelands may function as viable socioecological landscapes and could act as an important link between core conservation areas.

Pragmatic reframing from distress to playfulness: !Xun caregiver responses to infant crying

Using the method and theoretical perspective of language socialization, this paper examines the pragmatic reframing of infant behavior from distress to playfulness among the !Xun San of north–central Namibia. Reframing mobilizes a constellation of multiple semiotic resources. For the !Xun, central among these resources is “gymnastic behavior,” namely, holding infants upright or moving them up and down (bouncing). The analysis shows that !Xun caregivers frequently engage infants in gymnastic behavior in response to infant crying and other displays of distress. They thereby collaboratively create rhythms with infants and encourage them to display joyful reactions. Consequently, infants grow accustomed to pragmatic reframing and rekeying long before they can do so using language. Along with that, caregivers often involve other people in the changing participation framework of family interactions. These findings suggest that pragmatic reframing and rekeying assist infants and caregivers in establishing an intimate intercorporeality. Moreover, by reframing infant behavior in a particular manner, the caregivers display their alignment with !Xun knowledge and value system. Involvement of people around infants in caregiving behavior also enhances the (re)socialization of each interactant into the family and other social identities. It is argued that these features forge the development of !Xun distinct intersubjectivity.

Restoration thinning reduces bush encroachment on freehold farmlands in north-central Namibia

Abstract Bush encroachment affects ~45 million ha of Namibia and, without appropriate restoration measures, it negatively affects rangeland productivity and biodiversity. Thinning is a common method to counteract bush encroachment. The thinning strategy applied in north-central Namibia was assessed to examine how effective it has been in reducing bush encroachment. Trees/shrubs were selectively thinned manually, targeting all height classes, except individuals with stem diameters ≥18 cm. We investigated the effects on the vegetation and soil properties using surveys on three freehold farms (in 2016 and 2017) in bush-encroached and previously thinned habitats. Our results revealed significant differences in the mean total nitrogen (TN) content between the treatments; thinned areas had higher TN content which would be beneficial for fast-growing grasses. In the thinned plots, the occurrence probability of red umbrella thorn (Vachellia reficiens Warwa) was significantly reduced, indicating that it was the most harvested species; and umbrella thorn (Vachellia tortilis (Burch.) Brenan spp. heteracantha) was increased, indicating that it favoured reduced densities of dominant species. Natural regeneration was rapid; the tree/shrub abundance in the 0–1-m height class in the thinned area surpassed those in the non-thinned by 34 per cent, ~7.2 years since thinning. Thinning significantly reduced tree/shrub abundances of the 1–3- and >3-m height classes, which was still evident 7.2 years since thinning. Based upon the generalized linear mixed-effects model, tree/shrub counts between treatments may equalize in ~14 and 15 years for the 1–3- and >3-m height classes, respectively. Thinning was effective in reducing tree/shrub abundances and can be used to restore wildlife habitat on the Namibian farmland: however, post-thinning management is required to maintain an open savannah vegetation structure as the 0–1-m height class cohort will eventually grow into mature trees/shrubs.

Data pretreatment and multivariate analyses for ochre sourcing: Application to Leopard Cave (Erongo, Namibia)

Usually referred to as ‘ochre’ or ‘pigment’ in archaeological contexts, ferruginous rocks were commonly exploited during the Later Stone Age in southern Africa. While ochre could lead to crucial inferences about socio-cultural behaviours of past populations, the provenance and the procurement strategies of this material in LSA contexts, as well as its association to rock art remain largely understudied. In the present study, seventeen ochre sources from five geological zones in north-central Namibia and 41 archaeological ochre pieces discovered in the stratigraphic sequence of the Later Stone Age site of Leopard Cave, Erongo Mountains - Namibia, were analysed by ICP-OES and ICP-MS/MS. Geochemical data coupled to data pre-treatment considerations and multivariate statistical analyses demonstrate that archaeological ochres were both collected locally and regionally from more distant sources. Beyond shedding new light on ochre provenance for rock art in north-central Namibia during the Later Stone Age, our data provide new insight into the mobility of past populations and the interactions existing between distinct rock art areas in north-central Namibia.

Land use and interethnic relationships between the !Xun and the Ovawambo in post-independence north-central Namibia

The San consist of various groups distinguished by language, locale and cultural practices. Focusing on the !Xun San living in Ekoka, a village originally established by a missionary organisation in the heartland of the Ovawambo agro-pastoral people, this paper aims to clarify how the !Xun, the extreme minority in the region, have been reorganising their relationships with various actors including the Ovawambo after Namibia gained independence. The results show that the Ovawambo play an important role in providing the !Xun with opportunities to engage in wage labour, which is the main source of their income, and various food materials. In addition, the land shortage problem that the Ovawambo experience has become increasingly serious after independence. Against the backdrop of these circumstances, the Ovawambo have overused the cooperative farm which was initially created for the San, and thus damages to the San’s crops have frequently occurred, largely caused by the Oshiwanbo livestock. Nonetheless, the !Xun have not shown consistent opposition to the Ovawambo’s use of their land. Ironically, the cooperative farm, which was established and run by the missionary organisations about half a century ago for the purpose of promoting food self-sufficiency among the San, is facilitating the !Xun’s engagement in labour for the Ovawambo. While advocating poverty reduction for the San and their integration into the nation-state, the government is actually strengthening the policy of assimilating the San into the Ovawambo. In such a situation, the !Xun seek a better lifestyle by reorganising the reciprocal relationship with the Ovawambo through using the cooperative farm and food materials provided by the Namibian government. This article was published open access under a CC BY licence: https://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0 .

Remote-sensing-based algorithms for water quality monitoring in Olushandja Dam, north-central Namibia

AbstractFrequent and continuous water quality monitoring of Olushandja Dam in Namibia is needed to inform timely decision making. This study was carried out from November 2014 to June 2015 with Landsat 8 reflectance values and field measured water quality data that were used to develop regression-analysis-based retrieval algorithms. Water quality parameters considered included turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), nitrates, ammonia, total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and total algae counts. Results show that turbidity levels exceeded the recommended limits for raw water for potable water treatment while TN and TP values are within acceptable values. Turbidity, TN, and TP and total algae count showed a medium to strong positive linear relationship between Landsat predicted and measured water quality data while TSS showed a weak linear relationship. The regression coefficients between predicted and measured values were: turbidity (R2 = 0.767); TN (R2 = 0.798,); TP (R2 = 0.907); TSS (R2 = 0.284,) and total algae count (R2 = 0.851). Prediction algorithms are generally the best fit to derive water quality parameters. Remote sensing is recommended for frequent and continuous monitoring of Olushandja Dam as it has the ability to provide rapid information on the spatio-temporal variability of surface water quality.

Local participation in decentralized water governance: insights from north-central Namibia

Although several semi-arid African countries are decentralizing water services and attempting to increase the participation of local actors in water resource management, how effectively this is working, and whether it is improving water access, is not yet well researched. Little attention has been paid to the capacities (in terms of knowledge and resources) that local actors need to successfully influence the operation and management of water services they are made responsible for. In a qualitative study, we asked regional and local actors in the Omusati Region of north-central Namibia for their perspectives on how water reforms, initiated in the late 1990s, have impacted on their participation in water governance. Our analysis reveals that decentralized governance of water resources can be ineffective if governments do not allocate sufficient resources to support and enable local actors to participate efficiently and effectively in the governance system. In the context of the Paris Agreement and the Sustainable Development Goals, achieving greater equity and efficiency in the water sector while reducing climate risk will require that local actors receive more support in return for fuller and more effective participation. We suggest that policy and practice around decentralized water governance pay more attention to building the capacities of local actors to absorb the responsibilities transferred to them.

Can climate information salvage livelihoods in arid and semiarid lands? An evaluation of access, use and impact in Namibia

Climate forecasting is a crucial tool for managing risks in climate-sensitive economic sectors like agriculture. Although rainfed subsistence farming dominates livelihoods in Africa, information on access, integration in farm decisions and impact of improved seasonal climate forecasting remains scanty. This paper addresses this gap using representative data of 653 households across three regions in North-Central Namibia. The study employed propensity score matching, with a sensitivity analysis for hidden bias, to evaluate the impact of climate information on adaptive capacity and food security. Although half of the households received climate information, many rated it as insufficient for decision-making and relied on traditional knowledge. The main channels were the radio and farmer’s peers, but trust was low. Farmers were found to attach high importance to climate information in relation to decisions about sale of livestock and stocking livestock feed, restocking, storing food for consumption smoothing and in making crop choices. Households receiving climate information had more diversified diets, higher food expenditure and engaged in more adaptive strategies, but on a small scale. Effective response to climate information for risk mitigation will require enhanced community awareness of available adaptive choices, development of market value chains, institutional support like extension services, and improvement of rural road and communication infrastructure. Working with local leaders and integrating climate information into local knowledge systems can enhance access and utilization in farm decisions.

Effects of Climatic Variability and Non-Climatic Factors on Mopane Worms’ (Gonimbrasia Belina) Distribution and Livelihood Options in North Central Namibia

Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) are an important source of food and income for households in Northern Namibia. However, their access and availability in many areas have declined, mainly due to climate change and human activities. This has affected many households’ livelihoods, making them vulnerable to poverty and food insecurity. With these factors in mind, this study sought to identify the extent to which the availability and distribution of mopane worms are influenced in the Tsandi and Okahao constituencies. The study used structured questionnaires to collect information from households in the study area, to interview key informants, and to carry out group discussions. A total of 70 households and 6 key informants were interviewed, along with 4 focus group discussions that were carried out to elicit perceptions, and to obtain views on the availability of mopane worms, and possible causes of the decline in the study area. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while GIS was used to determine trends in vegetation cover, temperature and rainfall in the area. The rainfall trend indicates variability, with a generally declining trend. A slight increase in temperature has been observed too. Vegetation showed a browning trend in the study area, indicating declining habitats of mopane worms. The results have indicated that more women depend on mopane worms for survival, mainly as a source of income. Thus the decline in their availability greatly affects their food sources and their income diversification opportunities. Trading was found to be an important form of employment for the unemployed rural people, but with the potential to generate higher income levels that can improve their livelihoods. Moreover, despite the climatic factors, human activities seemed to indicate a greater influence on the availability of mopane worms, due to activities such as overharvesting, land clearing for agriculture and household use/fencing. Thus, there is a greater need to control the harvesting of mopane worms and to control tree cutting activities in order to reduce the impacts of climatic and non-climatic factors on their availability.

The development of vegetable enterprises in the presence of transaction costs among farmers in Omusati Region of Namibia: An assessment

The paper investigates how transaction characteristics influence the development of vegetable enterprises among smallholder farmers in north-central Namibia. As transaction costs are difficult to measure the theoretical framework of analysis is based on transaction costs economics of new institutional economics. The results revealed that the spot market-based governance structure was the most preferred market arrangements by smallholders farmers in north-central Namibia because vegetable farmers struggle to meet the quality and quantity standards as required by the contractors market-based and commission market-based arrangements. The results also suggest that due to incomplete information, farmers and market agents suffer from high transaction costs. Skewed information distribution between farmers and marketing agents leads to slow development of vegetable enterprises. The study recommends that information shared to farmers must be packaged in an adequate manner to minimise transaction costs in the vegetable value chain.

Socioecology of a high-density brown hyaena population within an enclosed reserve

Understanding the spatial ecology of wildlife is an essential prerequisite for making informed management decisions and is of particular importance for those species residing in enclosed reserves where space use may be influenced by restricted dispersal and high population densities. As the brown hyaena Parahyaena brunnea is a species likely to increasingly rely on enclosed protected areas for its long-term persistence, due to the intense persecution experienced outside of protected areas, we examined the spatial ecology of 10 brown hyaenas from a high-density population, within a small (200 km2) enclosed reserve in north-central Namibia. Spatial data, in combination with camera trap data from communal den sites, suggested six clans and at least one nomadic individual in the reserve. A mean home range size of 37 km2 (± 21 km2, range 16–97 km2) was recorded, with 92% of the reserve utilized as brown hyaena home range. Whilst these home range sizes are some of the lowest recorded for brown hyaena, the degree of overlap between neighbouring clans was similar to that recorded for open systems. Given that the majority of the reserve is utilized as brown hyaena home range, options for dispersing subadults may be limited and these individuals may represent ideal candidates for translocation into other enclosed reserves as part of metapopulation management schemes.

Evidence of a high-density brown hyena population within an enclosed reserve: the role of fenced systems in conservation

Small, enclosed reserves are now common across Africa, and their conservation importance as wildlife refuges is increasingly acknowledged. Whilst such reserves represent areas safe from human persecution, they can also become threats themselves when the natural processes of emigration and immigration are prohibited. As a result, wildlife populations residing in enclosed reserves require careful management to safeguard their long-term persistence. As successful conservation management relies on precise population estimates, we estimated brown hyena density within a 180-km2 enclosed reserve in north-central Namibia. Using camera trapping methods in combination with spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) models, brown hyena density was estimated at 24.01 brown hyenas/100 km2 (± 3.47, 95% CI’s 18.12–31.81), the highest recorded to date for the species. The high density is attributed to the relatively high density of leopard within the reserve, which may facilitate brown hyenas by providing access to the large herbivore biomass through kleptoparasitism, coupled with protection from human persecution. Results highlight the potential for enclosed reserves to host high-density populations of a persecuted large carnivore and show that, despite their often small size, such systems can aid conservation efforts. However, such results suggest reserve managers will be increasingly faced with the dilemma of dealing with surplus individuals when populations exceed carrying capacity. Therefore, the development of methods estimating carrying capacity for scavenging species, along with creating meta-population management schemes for all large carnivore species are essential next steps for conservation in Africa.