North Atlantic Treaty Organization Countries Research Articles

How membership in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization transforms public support for war.

How do military alliances affect public support for defending targets of aggression? We studied this question by fielding an experiment on 14,000 voters in 13 member countries of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Our experiment involved a hypothetical scenario in which Russia attacked a target country. We randomly varied the identity of the target (Bosnia, Finland, Georgia, or Sweden), and whether the target was a member of NATO at the time of the attack. We found that voters in every member country were far more willing to use military force to defend each target when the target was in NATO, than when the target was outside the alliance. The expansion of NATO could, therefore, transform European security by altering the likelihood and scale of future wars. We also uncovered important heterogeneity across targets: the benefits of joining NATO were considerably larger for Bosnia and Georgia than for Finland and Sweden, since most voters in NATO countries would defend Finland and Sweden even if they remained outside the alliance. Finally, the effect of NATO was much stronger among voters who perceived NATO as valuable for their own country. Rhetorical attacks on NATO could, therefore, undermine the alliance by eroding the public's willingness to defend other members, whereas rhetoric highlighting the benefits of NATO could bolster defense and deterrence. These findings advance knowledge about the effects of alliances, while also informing policy debates about the value and size of NATO.

The defence economy: an assessment of productivity change in NATO countries

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this paper is to find the determinants of productivity growth and its evolution over time for 27 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries over the period 2010–2017, with respect to the Global Peace Index. To this end, a production function was estimated for each year using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) methodology while the components of efficiency change, technical change, scale efficiency change and productivity change were calculated using the Malmquist Index for determining the change in productivity over time. According to the results obtained, the countries show a variation in productivity with a rising trend of 2%; Albania, Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Montenegro, Slovenia, Norway and the United Kingdom being the countries where the rise was more intense. Moreover, relative productivity fell in 11 other countries in the period under review. In particular, with regard to efficiency change, the countries improved on average by 0.2%, with Portugal showing the greatest rise and France the smallest. Regarding technical change, it rose on average by 5.2%. Finally, scale efficiency fell on average by 3.3%, with Romania being the most disadvantaged and Portugal the most favoured.

West Germany and NATO's Nuclear Force Posture in the Early 1960s (Part 1)

Abstract In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the member-states of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) debated whether a counterforce capability of hundreds of mobile medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs) under joint command in Europe was needed to reinforce U.S. extended nuclear deterrence. The conventional wisdom about this issue, echoing the official U.S. government position, has long been that deterrence was robust even without a joint missile force. According to this argument, U.S. policymakers tried to reassure NATO allies, particularly the West Germans, that sharing control of strategic nuclear weapons was unnecessary and unwise. The analysis presented here shows that the problem was not so straightforward. Many officials in NATO countries, particularly in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), viewed the MRBM debate not so much as a problem of nuclear weapons control but as a question of extended deterrence credibility and strategic stability, posing an all-or-nothing challenge to NATO.

Editor's Note

Editor's Note

Training strategies for the improvement of NATO Level 2 results for English Functional Level exams in the armed forces

Background: As NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) countries participate in many international missions and joint operations around the world, NATO considered it a necessity for personnel to be able to communicate in a common language. Therefore, one of the main tasks of the NATO multinational setting is the teaching and the assessment of languages. Consequently, there is a need for personnel to achieve the Standard Language Profiles (SLP). Each NATO country must develop SLP exams to achieve the required levels based on NATO STANAG (Standard agreement) 6001. If the examinees do not achieve those levels and the global results are unsatisfactory, NATO members can be affected by a reduction of financial support or the assignment to NATO postings. This study aimed to create a training strategies proposal (TSP) for personnel to achieve NATO L2. Methods: The study consisted of four separate studies: 1) Preliminary survey/interview of military personnel about NATO L2 training; 2) gathering data from NATO L2 exams after normal training; 3) gathering of data from NATO L2 exams after the TSP had been implemented; 4) Post-training survey. Data was collected from examinees over a period of six months or one year, using mixed data collection methods: surveys, interviews, and exam results. Results: A total of 50 examinees took part in the study. Results showed that the number of examinees who passed the NATO L2 increased after going through the TSP. Conclusions: The results show that the TSP, using newer methodologies and different techniques, improved NATO L2 results. The outcomes of this study will help to inform future training and education programs.

The military expenditures and economic growth nexus: Panel bootstrap granger causality evidence from NATO countries

The purpose of this study is to examine the causal linkage between military expenditures and economic growth in 27 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) member countries. Different periods are studied due to the unavailability of data for the common period for all countries. Both the symmetric and the asymmetric causality between military expenditures and economic growth are investigated under cross-sectional dependence and panel heterogeneity by using the bootstrap panel Granger causality testing approach. The results indicate that there is both symmetric and asymmetric Granger-causality between military expenditures and economic growth, which vary from one country to another. The robust empirical findings support the military expenditures and economic growth nexus in 12 of the 27 NATO member countries. Moreover, the findings show that more empirical evidence between military expenditures and economic growth can be obtained when the asymmetric causality is considered, in addition to the symmetric causality.

A Multiobjective Model for Analysis of the Relationships between Military Expenditures, Security, and Human Development in NATO Countries

The aim of this work is to design a multiobjective model to explain the behavior among military expenditures (MEs), the human development index, and the global peace index in countries belonging to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) for the study period 2008–2016. In order to solve this problem, different decision variables have been considered: health expenditure, education expenditure, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), collected taxes, public debt, and R&D costs, which are related to health, education, and economic sectors. To determine the relationships among decision variables making up the objective functions and model constraints, different panel data models were estimated. The obtained results show that the major part of the NATO countries present a behavior which differs from what is efficient. In this context, this work highlights the path to follow by each country, such as the implementation of public budget policies in the health and education sectors, and for collected taxes and public debt, to achieve efficient solutions.

La brecha de ciberseguridad en América Latina frente al contexto global de ciberamenazas

This research is based on the hypothesis that the governments of Latin America and the Caribbean are lagging behind in the construction of cyber defense capabilities to face the international context of cyber threats, with respect to the member countries of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), both in the organizational plan, as in the individual. To prove this statement, the text is divided into six sections. The first part presents the global environment of cyber threats, the economic losses suffered by governments and companies according to reports from information security firms such as Kaspersky, Microsoft, Verizon and International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). The second part presents the internet securitization process, the immersion of cybersecurity in national security studies, and the definition of cyber capabilities and the delimitation of threats to the Nation-State from cyberspace are addressed. The third part shows the trajectory of NATO as an organization in the development of cyber capabilities in the last twenty years. In the fourth part, a set of National Cybersecurity Strategies (ENCS) of NATO countries and allies is analyzed from the individual level, from which their main elements are extracted and their general anatomy is outlined. In the sixth part, an approach to different regional or global cybersecurity environments is presented based on measurements of the Global Cybersecurity Index (GCI), of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), and the National Cyber Security Index (NSCI) of the Estonian E-Governance Academy. The fifth section presents the context of cybersecurity in Latin America and the Caribbean, according to studies made by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and the Organization of American States (OAS), as well as private cybersecurity firms. In the sixth, two case studies of Mexico, from the 2019-2020, are briefly presented, which represent the lack of maturity of its ENCS and development of cyber capabilities, an aspect that it shares with most of the countries of Latin America and Caribbean. Finally, brief conclusions are presented on the aspects to be strengthened by the region.

Joint replacements in the Canadian Armed Forces

There is currently no consensus on the appropriate sports and occupational restrictions for military service members with a joint replacement. Data from the United States show that 14% of military patients complete an operational deployment after the index surgery. No published data are available on arthroplasty in the militaries of other North Atlantic Treaty Organization countries. Research is needed to determine the appropriate medical employment limitations for Canadian Armed Forces members with a knee or hip replacement. Service members wanting to continue military service should be carefully screened to ensure that their duties do not compromise the longevity of the implant and that the risk of mission-threatening complications is minimal.

Military spending and economic growth: a panel data investigation

The present study examines the worldwide effect of military spending on economic growth for the period 1960–2017 utilizing the dynamic common correlated effects estimator that accounts for country heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence, while it provides not only sample-average coefficients but country-specific coefficients as well. Overall, the worldwide effect of military spending on economic growth over the period 1960–2017 appears to be negative, and this originates from the cold war and early post-cold war era and is especially evident for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization countries. For the post-cold war era, a neutral effect (i.e., no statistical significance) is apparent for the majority of countries. At the country-specific level, there are some economies that consistently benefit or suffer from military spending, while the type of the individual impact for most of the countries varies over different time periods, with no clear pattern.

General Lyman L. Lemnitzer and NATO, 1948–69: a deferential leader

ABSTRACTThe Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR), General Lyman L. Lemnitzer, was an unlikely hero who rose to the challenge of France’s expulsion of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) from its territory in 1966. President de Gaulle’s action forced the Alliance to locate its new headquarters in another NATO country and move 800,000 tons of military equipment out of France in less than a year’s time. How to achieve this goal without irrevocably fracturing relations with France was the charge given to the Supreme Allied Commander, a man of equable temperament and – from the perspective of some of his peers – of modest talents. He lacked the authority of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the intellect of General Alfred M. Gruenther Gruenther, and the imperious temperament of General Lauris Norstad. But against the odds he succeeded in opening Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) headquarters in Belgium on 1 April 1967. This essay seeks to examine his long relationship with NATO and judge how successful he was in his leadership as Supreme Allied Commander in the 1960s.

Evaluation of the computer simulation model NTVPM for assessing military tracked vehicle cross-country mobility

In the United States and some other NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) countries, the NATO Reference Mobility Model is currently used to evaluate military ground vehicle mobility. The module of the NATO Reference Mobility Model for predicting the cross-country performance of military vehicles is empirically based and was developed using test data collected decades ago. The NATO Reference Mobility Model has inherent limitations, such as the uncertainty whether its empirical relations can be extrapolated beyond the test conditions upon which they were derived or whether it can be used for evaluating new-generation military vehicles. This suggests that there is a need for the development of a physics-based model that takes into account the advancements in terramechanics and modelling/simulation techniques. This paper describes the results of a detailed evaluation of a physics-based model – the Nepean Tracked Vehicle Performance Model – for assessing military tracked vehicle cross-country performance. The performance of a notional tracked vehicle (an armoured personnel carrier) predicted by the latest version of the Nepean Tracked Vehicle Performance Model is compared with test data obtained on sandy terrain, muskeg and snow-covered terrain. The correlations between the predicted and measured performance are evaluated using the coefficient of correlation, coefficient of determination, root mean square deviation and coefficient of variation. The applications of the Nepean Tracked Vehicle Performance Model to predicting the maximum possible vehicle speed (speed-made-good) on a given terrain, the sensitivity of vehicle performance to variations in the values of terrain parameters and the mean maximum pressure are demonstrated. The results of this study indicate that the Nepean Tracked Vehicle Performance Model has potential to form the basis for the development of the next-generation cross-country performance assessment methodology for military tracked vehicles.

Study of environmental management systems on defence

The effective and sustainable environmental performance of a business is a result of various factors and most important the integrated outcome of the environmental management. Likewise, the integration of environmental protection into the armed forces functions has also gain interest for the military sector internationally. Therefore, the environmental management system (EMS) is recognized as one of the most widely used tools. This study provides a review on environmental management issues related to the military activities and their assessment globally. The multitasking characteristics of the defence sector result in the need for the eco-friendly related issues to be directed in a holistic and integrated way, with the help of a certified environmental management system. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) itself and NATO countries, like USA, UK, Canada, Holland, Denmark, Czech Republic, Greece, as well as non-NATO countries like Sweden and Australia have an environmental management system structure in place to assist military environmental management and studies reveal that the armed forces could anticipate positive outcomes from environmental management system. A case-by-case approach, of the above, is examined and based on the results, appropriate recommendations are presented, which may contribute to the environmental management system considerations as the most important tool for effective management framework and most importantly to evaluate its effectiveness as a structure for the defence sector’s activities.

Historical and Cultural Perspectives on Integrative Medicine

Abstract Background: The field of medicine dates back to ancient times. Early practices were adopted by subsequent societies. Cultures had significant influences over many aspects of life. Globally, there is a health care crisis of inadequate delivery and less-than-optimal outcomes despite all the advancements and evidence provided by modern biomedicine. North Atlantic Treaty Organization countries represent diverse cultures and societal experiences and, collectively, may offer new perspectives in the evolution of health care delivery. Objective: A retrospective review of the influences of ancient practices and cultures is provided. This can serve as a foundation for a prospective discussion about integrating the various current systems into a better paradigm of health care. Methods: This article discusses the impact of historical and cultural perspectives on medicine in general and on specifically integrative medicine (IM). The origins of some IM modalities are highlighted. Conclusions: History reveals t...

Amphibious assets of the armed forces of the NATO countries, the Russian Federation and the Republic of China

The article presents a brief overview of modern developments and directions of further development of amphibious assets for overcoming water obstacles in foreign armed forces, notably the amphibian assets of the armed forces of the Parties of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. The article follows the historical path of the development of amphibious assets.The paper deals with the classification of amphibious assets in foreign armed forces.In preparing the article, there was a big problem to find the latest literature so data from the Internet was largely used. The literature that exists in the Army of Serbia is related to the seventies of the last century, when there was the last investment in amphibious assets.The knowledge on the amphibious assets for overcoming water obstacles in foreign armed forces can be seen as a help in assessing the effects of their use and the need for innovation and investment in the country’s own resources. Introduction The introduction explains the very concept of water hazard and its characteristics.It also explains the importance of water obstacles in the development of military equipment, but also in terms of the execution of tactical operations and procedures. Historical development of amphibious assets This section shows the historical development of amphibious assets from the early nineteenth century through World War II and Cold War until today. The h istorical development of amphibious assets is shown through figures 1 to 3 . The classification of amphibious assets in foreign armed forces is given as well . Amphibious assets of the armed forces of the NATO countries The a mphibious assets of the armed forces of the NATO countries s hown here are representative for the armed forces of the NATO countries . T he assets of the armed forces of the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Turkey and Germany are given in f igures 4 to 1 1 and explained with their tactical - technical data. Amphibious vehicles of the armed forces of the Russian Federation The a mphibious v ehicles of the armed forces of the Russian Federation d isplayed here are representative for the armed forces of the Russian Federation. The d isplayed assets are just modified version s of the eighties assets , primarily due to the minimal investment of the Russian armed forces in to the sector of weapons and equipment. T he assets are given in figures from 1 2 to 18 and explained with the ir tactical - technical data. Amphibious assets of the armed forces of the People's Republic of China The a mphibious assets of the armed forces of the People's Republic of China shown here are representative for the armed forces of the People's Republic of China. O nly the original assets of Chinese production are shown since all other assets come from the Russian armed forces. They are shown in Figures 19 and 20 and followed with the ir tactical - technical data. Conclusion The conclusion discusses the tendency of further development of amphibious assets in foreign armed forces.

Exposure to Low Levels of Jet-Propulsion Fuel Impairs Brainstem Encoding of Stimulus Intensity

Jet propulsion fuel-8 (JP-8) is a kerosene-based fuel that is used in military jets. The U.S. Armed Services and North Atlantic Treaty Organization countries adopted JP-8 as a standard fuel source and the U.S. military alone consumes more than 2.5 billion gallons annually. Preliminary epidemiologic data suggested that JP-8 may interact with noise to induce hearing loss, and animal studies revealed damage to presynaptic sensory cells in the cochlea. In the current study, Long-Evans rats were divided into four experimental groups: control, noise only, JP-8 only, and JP-8 + noise. A subototoxic level of JP-8 was used alone or in combination with a nondamaging level of noise. Functional and structural assays of the presynaptic sensory cells combined with neurophysiologic studies of the cochlear nerve revealed that peripheral auditory function was not affected by individual exposures and there was no effect when the exposures were combined. However, the central auditory nervous system exhibited impaired brainstem encoding of stimulus intensity. These findings may represent important and major shifts in the theoretical framework that governs current understanding of jet fuel and/or jet fuel + noise-induced ototoxicity. From an epidemiologic perspective, results indicate that jet fuel exposure may exert consequences on auditory function that may be more widespread and insidious than what was previously shown. It is possible that a large population of military personnel who are suffering from the effects of jet fuel exposure may be misidentified because they would exhibit normal hearing thresholds but harbor a “hidden” brainstem dysfunction.

Euromissiles as the Ultimate Evolution of Theater Nuclear Forces in Europe

This article builds on the analysis published by Kristina Spohr-Readman in the Fall 2012 issue of the JCWS about the decision in December 1979 by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to deploy intermediate-range nuclear forces in Europe. Spohr-Readman's article drew heavily on declassified documents from NATO countries, but information from those who took part in the deliberations (of whom Gaffney was one) sheds further light on the matter and changes a few aspects of the story, particularly regarding U.S. officials' views of the utility (or lack thereof) of battlefield nuclear weapons.

Turkey's Place in the ‘Missile Shield’

The critical decision to share the advanced missile defence capabilities of the USA, also known as the ‘Missile Shield’, was taken at the Lisbon Summit meeting of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in November 2010. Turkey had concerns about the Missile Shield project, which constituted an important item on the summit agenda. Turkey's concerns were addressed properly by the allies, and a key component of the project, namely, the radar site in eastern Turkey was activated in May 2012 at the time of the Chicago Summit of the Alliance. This paper aims to shed light on the background of the development and expansion of the missile defence project of the USA both at national and global scales. In the same vein, technological characteristics and operational principles of air defence systems as well as the reactions coming from other countries, such as Russia, China, Iran and the European allies will be presented. The paper will highlight the deliberations between Turkey and the USA since the 1990s with respect to the deployment of air defence systems on Turkish territory. Finally, Turkey's place in the debate concerning the deployment of the Missile Shield in NATO countries will be discussed with specific references to the role that Turkey could play in enhancing the defensive as well as deterrent capability of the Alliance and itself.

Use of Animals by NATO Countries in Military Medical Training Exercises: An International Survey

Among the 28 member nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a variety of training methodologies--including simulators, moulage scenarios, didactics and live animal laboratories-are used to prepare military medical personnel to treat injured civilians and soldiers. For ethical, educational, practical, and economic reasons, the necessity of animal use for this purpose has come into question. This article reports the results of a survey examining the prevalence of animal use in military medical training exercises among all NATO nations, finding that more than three-quarters of these countries do not use animals.

NATO science for peace and security program

A little-known science program administered by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), called NATO Science for Peace and Security (SPS) Program, has a successful record of stimulating collaboration by experts from NATO countries with experts from countries from the former soviet block of countries (called partner countries) and several countries of the Middle East (called Mediterranean Dialogue countries). The former countries are associated with NATO through the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, and the latter through the Mediterranean Dialogue. Grants are given to experts for a number of scientific objectives: short-term scientific exchange, organized workshops and training, and longer term sustained research or meetings. SPS program objectives until 2006 were carried by the previous program called Committee for the Challenges for Modern Society (CCMS) Program. The current priorities of SPS are: