Norms In International Relations Research Articles

The Main Obstacles to EU Public Diplomacy in China

Introduction. The article is devoted to the key obstacles that complicate the implementation of public diplomacy programmes of the European Union in China. The relevance of this study is due to the existing efforts of Brussels to significantly strengthen its political influence not only in the countries neighbouring the EU but also in the Asia-Pacific region. Methods. The methodological basis of the research is social constructivism (the concept of “Normative Power Europe”), which pays great attention to norms in international relations. The empirical basis of the study involves official EU documents, expert reports and publications of Russian and foreign scholars. Analysis. The article examines the main actors and areas of public diplomacy of the European Union in China. The impact of restrictive measures by the Chinese government on EU public diplomacy as well as the EU foreign policy strategy towards China are analyzed. Results. In China, the EU’s public diplomacy faces a set of different challenges: administrative barriers from the Chinese government; ambivalence of the EU’s foreign policy towards China; the shortcomings of the existing EU public diplomacy system (lack of financial and human resources as well as a “mediocre” assessment of the effectiveness of public diplomacy programmes). According to the authors, the commitment of the EU political elites to certain values and norms that constitute “Normative Power Europe” creates serious challenges for the implementation of the EU’s public diplomacy in China. Authors’ contribution. K.A. Morari identified key actors and areas of public diplomacy of the European Union in China. In addition, A.N. Marchukov highlighted the main obstacles that hinder Brussels’ attempts to “win the hearts and minds” of the Chinese public.

Images of a Statist Ethic in “Western” and Chinese IR Theory: Locating (and Deciphering) the “Moral Realism” of the Tsinghua Approach

Abstract In this article, we identify—and interrogate—one thematic thread that is intricately woven through prominent positions within classical realism, normative international relations (IR) theory, and what Zhang Feng (2012) has called Chinese IR’s “Tsinghua approach.” This thread is the often-controversial notion of a statist ethic for international politics or an ethical perspective that grants priority to one’s state, fellow citizens, and the national interest. Positions within each of these theoretical traditions—what we label “egoistic realism” and “responsible realism” within the classical realist tradition, “communitarian realism” and “impartialist statism” within normative IR theory, and what others have described as “moral realism” within the Tsinghua approach—share a commitment to an ethical approach variously defined in terms of the protection of, and preference for, one’s state and compatriots. We take this rich collection of positions, and the points of comparison that it affords, as an opportunity to better understand the possibilities and limits of a statist ethic for international politics. Specifically, we endeavour to illustrate four points: (1) that a morality defined in terms of the priority of the state, one’s fellow citizens, and the national interest is neither impossible nor a contradiction in terms; (2) that such a perspective can constitute a sophisticated theoretical position; (3) that it can be conceived in radically different ways, including with respect to the source of value to which it appeals and who it deems to matter; and (4) that these differences have profound practical consequences. In terms of contributing to a conversation between Western and Chinese IR theory, this analysis helps us not only to explore how the “moral realism” of the Tsinghua approach relates to positions within classical realism and normative IR theory but also to evaluate the practical implications of its points of theoretical convergence and divergence.

The Governance Turn in the World Bank Discourse from a Normative IR Lens: Cosmopolitanism or Communitarianism?

When structural adjustment programmes which had dominated the lending conditionality of the leading international financial institutions (the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank) in the 1980s failed to deliver the expected success stories, governance gained traction as a predictor of aid effectiveness. Development discourse and practice began incorporating governance indicators and defining a governance concept in line with the effort to reassess the role of the state in development. This paper examines whether the inclusion of governance in the development discourse of the World Bank in the 1990s reflects cosmopolitan or communitarian ethical norms. Normative international relations theory permits an assessment of the so-called governance turn in World Bank conditionality which interrogates the understanding of the state and of the international community which are put forth. Key World Bank publications from the 1990s are selected for content analysis. The first level of analysis interrogates whether the conceptualization of the state emerging from the documents reflects a communitarian or cosmopolitan approach. The second level of analysis focuses on the universalism-particularism tension in the cosmopolitan-communitarian debate. What emerges from the analysis is a hybrid of cosmopolitan and communitarian sensibilities where the technocratic approach of the World Bank allows operationalizing conditionality and (good) governance in a list of indicators without a consistent normative framework.

Ethical Norms in International Relations: A Larger Theoretical Mapping

Bu çalışma, iki farklı akademik disiplin olan etik (ahlak felsefesi) ve Uluslararası İlişkilerin (Uİ) literatürde hangi normlar etrafında, nasıl bir araya getirildiğinin geniş bir haritasını vermeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu haritalandırma, iki disiplinin bir araya getirildiği kuram olan Normatif Uluslararası İlişkiler Teorisindeki (Normatif Teori) toplulukçu ve kozmopolitan norm ve değerleri içermenin yanında, bazı eleştirel kuramlar içindeki belirli normların da somut etik anlamlara sahip olduğunu göstermeye çalışmaktadır. Böylece, Uİ’de etiğin aslında daha geniş düşünsel ve kuramsal boyutlarının olduğu iddia edilmektedir. Bu doğrultuda, öncelikle Normatif Teoride siyasi eylem ve tavırları yönlendiren ahlaki normlardan toplulukçuluğun öne çıkardığı “topluluk/devlet” ve kozmopolitanizmdeki “evrensel hak” tartışılmıştır. Daha sonra, uluslararası alanda politika ve eylemleri belirlemesi gerektiğini savunan Marksizm’in “sınıf”, Postkolonyalizmin “ırk”, Feminizmin “cinsiyet” ve Yeşil Teorinin “çevre” normları ahlaki bağlamda ele alınmıştır. Sonuç olarak uluslararası etik çalışmaların Normatif Teoriyle sınırlı olamayacağı ortaya konulmaktadır.

Small States in International Relations: Some Theoretical Aspects

An important trend in the development of international relations in the second half of the 20th−early 21st centuries is the growing significance of small states in international relations. From passive “pawns” in the big political games of the great powers, they are turning into active players capable of pursuing their own national interests in the international arena. During the Cold War period, European neutral states acquired unique experience in fruitful cooperation in international organizations, peaceful mediation, and peacemaking. Multilateral diplomacy, renunciation of the use of force, and striving for a peaceful political resolution of conflicts somewhat predetermine the interest in studying the experience of small states. The decline in the ability of the leading great powers to resolve conflicts effectively in the periphery of the international system, on the one hand, and the capability of small states to generate new ideas and norms in international relations, on the other, create preconditions for a further increase in the role of small states in international relations. To understand the nature of international relations in general and the formation and behavior of modern coalitions and alliances in particular, it is necessary to study not only the great powers but also small states, which make up the vast majority of countries. This article is aimed to identify the main stages of the study of small states in international relations, to analyze the main approaches to the definition of the concept of small states, to consider the factors of formation of the foreign policy of small states through the prism of some theories of international relations, and to elucidate the features of the foreign policy behavior of small states in international relations.

Localizing refugeehood: norms and the US resettlement of Afghan allies

Abstract A central challenge for the study of norms in International Relations entails understanding how meaning is enacted through use and local context. Amid trends towards governments reducing pathways of humanitarian migration, local constructions of meaning around refugeehood and the obligations owed to people fleeing persecution can influence global trajectories of containment and responsibility-sharing. As a means of advancing our understanding of norm localization and contestation, this article provides an account of how obligations around refugee protection are configured and contested among national and subnational authorities. Using a case study of discourses (re)produced among United States' federal, state and municipal leaders, it explores the multiple, complex layers of meaning which emerged around duties of care owed to foreign civilian ‘allies’ in the context of the 2021 Taliban takeover of Afghanistan. Beyond illustrating dynamics of localization and contestation, the article shows how domestic resistance to norm implementation can operate as a surrogate for wider visions of resisting liberal international principles. The case study more broadly contributes to understanding the conflicting logics associated with duties of care in the aftermath of military interventions.

Small states in international relations: Some theoretical aspects

One of the important trends in the development of international relations in the second half of the 20th — early 21st centuries is the growing importance of small states in international relations. From passive “pawns” in the big political games of the great powers, they are turning into active players capable of pursuing their own national interests in the international arena. During the Cold War period, European neutral states acquired an unique experience of fruitful cooperation in international organizations, peaceful mediation and peacemaking. Multilateral diplomacy, renunciation of the use of force, striving for a peaceful political resolution of conflicts predetermine, to a certain extent, interest in studying the experience of small countries. The decline in the ability of the leading great powers to resolve conflicts effectively on the periphery of the international system, on the other hand, the capability of small countries to generate new ideas and norms in international relations create preconditions for a further increase in the role of small countries in international relations. It is necessary to study not only the great powers, but also the small countries that make up the vast majority of states, if we want to understand the nature of international relations in general, the formation and behavior of modern coalitions and alliances in particular. This article aims to identify the main stages of the study of small states in international relations, to analyze the main approaches to the definition of the concept of “small state”, to consider the factors of formation of the foreign policy of small states through the prism of some theories of international relations, to find out the features of the foreign policy behavior of small countries in international relations.

Global justice, foreign policy, and the law of peoples: a Rawlsian defence of the Commonwealth

ABSTRACT Ever since its entrenching of a fundamentally political mission with the Harare Declaration in 1991, the relevance of the modern Commonwealth has been fiercely contested. Not only has its organisational purpose been questioned but its efficacy in delivering its democratic goals continues to be undermined as well. This article seeks to relocate the debate to within the spheres of political philosophy and normative international relations theory and argues that a defence of the Commonwealth can be found in John Rawls’ The Law of Peoples. This defence, however, is conditioned on and accompanied with a proposal for an open enlargement foreign policy which furthers the Commonwealth’s commitment to global justice.

R2P and the Pluralist Norm-shapers

Abstract Responsibility to Protect (R2P) brought about new challenges for research on norms in International Relations, mainly due to the actions of emerging powers. These states have exhibited complex behaviour towards norms. Rather than classifying them as simple norm-rejecters or norm-takers, current literature on norms in International Relations has classified them as norm-shapers. In their behaviour, emerging powers seek to shape the norm from various angles. In this sense, the need arises to theoretically frame these types of engagement. This essay aims to analyse the action of normative shapers through the lens of the English School of International Relations, combined with constructivism. After presenting the norm-shapers and characterising them theoretically, a new concept is introduced, called pluralist norm-shapers.

Norm entrepreneurs in foreign policy: How Chile became an international human rights promoter

This article aims to understand how and under what conditions new democracies develop a strong human rights identity in the realm of foreign policy. By using Chile as a case study and applying concepts from the literature on norms in international relations to foreign policy, it examines how Chile—a state emerging from military rule at the beginning of the 1990s—was able to reconceive its perceived national interests to actively incorporate human rights concerns into its foreign policy decisions. Based on extensive fieldwork, the article argues that the reformulation of Chile’s identity as a human rights promoter occurred under a specific set of conditions: the presence of a group of experts in international politics and former human rights activists in key positions within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the state bureaucracy. These actors acted as norm entrepreneurs, promoting and legitimizing human rights principles within the government and further institutionalizing these ideas within the state apparatus.

Implementation in practice: The use of force to protect civilians in United Nations peacekeeping

Since the failures of the United Nations of the early 1990s, the protection of civilians has evolved as a new norm for United Nations peacekeeping operations. However, a 2014 United Nations report found that while peacekeeping mandates often include the use of force to protect civilians, this has routinely been avoided by member states. What can account for this gap between the apparently solid normative foundations of the protection of civilians and the wide variation in implementation? This article approaches the question by highlighting normative ambiguity as a fundamental feature of international norms. Thereby, we consider implementation as a political, dynamic process where the diverging understandings that member states hold with regard to the protection of civilians norm manifest and emerge. We visualize this process in combining a critical-constructivist approach to norms with practice theories. Focusing on the practices of member states’ military advisers at the United Nations headquarters in New York, and their positions on how the protection of civilians should be implemented on the ground, we draw attention to their agency in norm implementation at an international site. Military advisers provide links between national ministries and contingents in the field, while also competing for being recognized as competent performers of appropriate implementation practices. Drawing on an interpretivist analysis of data generated through an online survey, a half-day workshop and interviews with selected delegations, the article adds to the understanding of norms in international relations while also providing empirical insights into peacekeeping effectiveness.

Autonomous weapons systems and changing norms in international relations

AbstractAutonomous weapons systems (AWS) are emerging as key technologies of future warfare. So far, academic debate concentrates on the legal-ethical implications of AWS but these do not capture how AWS may shape norms through defining diverging standards of appropriateness in practice. In discussing AWS, the article formulates two critiques on constructivist models of norm emergence: first, constructivist approaches privilege the deliberative over the practical emergence of norms; and second, they overemphasise fundamental norms rather than also accounting for procedural norms, which we introduce in this article. Elaborating on these critiques allows us to respond to a significant gap in research: we examine how standards of procedural appropriateness emerging in the development and usage of AWS often contradict fundamental norms and public legitimacy expectations. Normative content may therefore be shaped procedurally, challenging conventional understandings of how norms are constructed and considered as relevant in International Relations. In this, we outline the contours of a research programme on the relationship of norms and AWS, arguing that AWS can have fundamental normative consequences by setting novel standards of appropriate action in international security policy.

Influence and Interference in Foreign Elections

The use of influence or interference activities by one country to change the tide of elections in another has recently gained prominence due to alleged Russian influence in the 2016 US presidential election and the 2017 French presidential election. In this article, Paul Baines and Nigel Jones chart the evolution of influence and interference in foreign elections. With the rise of its modern digital form, they consider whether it is acceptable as a norm in international relations, or a violation.

After decision-making: the operationalization of norms in International Relations

Research on norms in International Relations (IR) includes various concepts related to how norms influence actions. These approaches focus on the decision-making process, and largely neglect the operationalization of norms. This omission leads to an analytical gap: a lack of attention to how the substance of abstract norms is transformed and constructed in the operationalization process. This article draws on the Foucauldian theme of governmentality to introduce a novel perspective on operationalizing norms. It focusses in particular on the role of techniques as understudied parts inherent to the reflexive processes of operationalization and meaning production. The article thereby contests the prevalence of fundamental norms in conventional IR theory. It demonstrates, instead, that global governance techniques do not simply translate rationalities into practice, but construct their very own normativities. These theoretical reflections are illustrated by analysing the operationalization of norms through indicators in the case of the European Union’s human rights policy.

“Inter-National” Habermas: Contestation and Understanding under Conditions of Diversity

“Inter-National” Habermas: Contestation and Understanding under Conditions of Diversity

Perpetual Struggle

Perpetual Struggle

Broadening the Contestation of Norms in International Relations

Broadening the Contestation of Norms in International Relations

Zooming in on norm research: Towards a suitable scale for the Shanghai Mixed Court

Abstract:Research on norms in international relations has recently focused increasingly on the localisation and translation of normative patterns. While there is a strong interest in studying local diversity as embedded in global contexts, the question of how to accomplish this still poses a methodological challenge. In order to make visible the different global, national, local, and situational dimensions of diffusion processes, this article applies the technique of ‘zooming in’ on the respective levels. The article studies the case of a mixed court in Shanghai at the end of the nineteenth century. The court is both a special court in the context of extraterritoriality and a representative case of hybrid normativity and decision making. As this article shows, the practices of the mixed court are not reducible to its single foreign, national or local components. On the contrary, it represents an original normative institution combining various normative and procedural elements. In describing this hybrid institution, the article refers to the concept of multinormativity, understood as an extension of what has been discussed as legal pluralism, since it does not take Western concepts of the law as a major point of reference.

US–Russia Confrontation and a New Global Balance

Although the US–Russia relations are hardly the central axis of contemporary international relations, the systemic confrontation between Moscow and Washington, which began in 2014, will become a decisive factor for the emerging international order. This confrontation was caused by factors much deeper than a mere clash of national interests in Ukraine or Syria. It came as a result of their fundamental disagreement about the basic rules and norms of international relations and a clash of the visions of international order which Moscow and Washington have been promoting since the end of the Cold War. Moreover, this confrontation is a part—and currently the epicentre—of a broader rift between the US and major non-Western centres of power about the nature of a post-hegemonic international order. It put an end to the post-Cold War period of the International System development, and reflects unwillingness of the non-Western power centres to accept the US’ global leadership, and US attempts to restore it. Since none of the sides is ready for one-way compromise and all bet on the weakening of the opponent, continuation of the US–Russia confrontation will deepen the split in the Atlantic and Pacific, and intensify the general tendency of global governance bifurcation and emergence of a global divide into two major political and economic communities.

Peremptory law, global order, and the normative boundaries of a pluralistic world

This article develops a socio-legal approach to theorizing the construction of peremptory norms in international relations. It argues that due to its focus on formalism and abstract notions of rights, traditional legal treatments have failed to acknowledge the socially constructed nature of higher order norms. To address this shortcoming, the article transfers the concept ofjus cogensinto the realm of International Relations. Drawing on insights from constructivism and English School theory, it situates law in the context of society and conceptualizesjus cogensas part of international society’s constitutional structure. Proceeding from the assumption that the content and identity ofjus cogensdepends on the normative character of international society, the article then assesses two possible ‘normative logics’ through which the peremptory status of a norm may be generated. It rejects a solidarist logic, which sees universal norms as the manifestation of cosmopolitan ideas about inalienable rights. Instead, it argues for a pluralist approach to ethics and order that depictsjus cogensas key to the development of international society towards a social site marked by diversity and respect for difference.