Normative Beliefs Research Articles

People update their injunctive norm and moral beliefs after receiving descriptive norm information.

How do descriptive norms shape injunctive norm beliefs, and what does this tell us about the cognitive processes underlying social norm cognition? Across six studies (N = 2,671), we examined whether people update their injunctive norm beliefs-as well as their moral judgments and behavioral intentions-after receiving descriptive norm information about how common (or uncommon) a behavior is. Specifically, we manipulated the descriptive normativity of behaviors, describing behaviors as uncommon (20% of people were doing the behavior) or common (80% of people were doing the behavior), and the type of behavior across studies (fairness, conventional, harm, preference). To measure belief updating, we assessed beliefs prior to and after receiving information about the descriptive norm. We had three main findings: First, participants positively updated their prior injunctive norm beliefs, moral judgments, and behavioral intentions (i.e., rated behaviors more injunctively normative and moral) after receiving a common descriptive norm and negatively updated their beliefs (i.e., rated behaviors less injunctive and moral) after receiving an uncommon descriptive norm, and updated to a larger extent for the common than uncommon descriptive norm. Second, participants were more likely to update their beliefs about what is moral for others compared to what is moral for the self. Third, participants updated their beliefs to a greater extent for fairness and conventional behaviors compared to harm behaviors and preferences. Together, our findings suggest that descriptive norms shape our injunctive norm beliefs and moral judgments and help to paint a fuller picture of the social cognition of social norms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural normative beliefs in the U.S. as a determinant of negative dental experiences and dental anxiety: a preliminary investigation

AbstractDental anxiety, a predictor of both dental treatment avoidance and health outcomes, has been linked with early negative dental experiences. The causes of this relationship remain largely unexplored. This study provides a preliminary exploration of within-cultural variations of dental normative beliefs on the perception of negative dental experiences and the subsequent experience of dental anxiety in the U.S. A sample of 190 U.S. adults recruited from Amazon’s MTurk completed measures of cultural normative beliefs about oral health care, age and fear at first dental visit, history of negative dental experiences, and dental anxiety. Factor analysis yielded support for a three-factor model (daily maintenance, regular check-up, and dental treatment) of the dental cultural normative beliefs scale. Correlations and structural equation modeling found support for a previously posited theoretical model in which negative dental experiences and fear at first dental visit mediate associations between the cultural normative beliefs and dental anxiety. Most notably, cultural normative beliefs favoring a prevention orientation to dental treatment and daily maintenance of oral health predicted less fear at the first dentist visit, which in turn, related to fewer negative dental experiences and less dental anxiety. This preliminary survey suggests that dental cultural normative beliefs within the U.S. shape fear during initial dental visits. Future research should build on this initial work and explore between-cultural norm variations as well as strategies for changing cultural normative beliefs to improve perceptions of dental experiences and lessen dental anxiety.

Factors influencing proactive health behaviors in pre-frailty older adults: A qualitative study based on theory of planned behavior

Aimsto explore factors that can influence proactive health behaviors in pre-frailty older adults. Designthis is a qualitative content analysis study. Methodsdata collected through interviews with 20 pre-frailty older adults in a geriatric unit at a general hospital in Guangzhou, China. We used deductive content analysis to categorize codes and calculate their frequency based on the theory of planned behavior. Inductive content analysis was used to analyze data that could not be analyzed according to the theory of planned behavior. Resultsthe data were analyzed and grouped into categories by beliefs similarity, counted from the frequencies. The factors of 6 behavioral beliefs, 6 normative beliefs, and 14 control beliefs were issued. Six themes emerged, including positive attitudes toward proactive health behaviors outcomes, lack of proactive health awareness the negative influence of children on proactive health behaviors, lack of knowledge of proactive health behaviors, spouses play an important role in proactive health behaviors, low resistance to unhealthy behavior. Conclusionthis research will support to the construction of a psychometric scale to measure the intentions of proactive health behaviors in pre-frailty older adults. These influencing factors will also help us to develop measures to improve the ability of pre-frailty older adults to be proactive health in the future. Impactthis research validates and extends the theory of planned behavior. The findings of factors influencing proactive health behaviors help us to develop strategies to enhance proactive health in pre-frailty older adults in the future. These findings also provide content for the construction of the psychometrics of proactive health intentions scales. Reporting Methodthis study follows the COREQ reporting norms.

Fishing tourism and the environment: Examining fishing tourists’ resource consumption reduction and recycling behaviors at fishing destinations

With increasing climate change, it is becoming imperative to implement pro-environmental practices. The present study aimed to delineate the determinants of fishing tourists’ eco-friendly behaviors by adopting a fuzzy-set approach. The results revealed the complex interplay of VBN (value–belief–norm) factors, perceived barriers, and motives in shaping fishing tourists’ environmental behaviors. While no single factor emerged as a necessary condition for pro-environmental behaviors, the findings provide valuable insights for policymakers and tourism professionals seeking to promote sustainability in fishing tourism sites. Moreover, the results offer insights that will help in the understanding of fishing tourists’ underlying psychological structure and in devising tactics to promote pro-environmental measures for recreational wildlife tourists.

Psychosocial Factors Influencing Voting Behavior

This study delves into the voting behaviour in the context of Indian electorate, shedding light on understanding it in the relatively new dimension, where the focus is primarily on psychological factors and social factors (demography) influencing the voting behaviour, which further sheds light on understanding the broader issues, like low voter turnout in India compared to other democracies worldwide, understanding of opinion polls and exit surveys and other evolving unethical Influences which are centred around mental process of voters cognition, which could create a new dimension of understanding the need for neuro rights of the voters, where the motive of free and fair elections can be achieved. This pioneering attempt to comprehend the psycho - social factors influencing voting behaviour in the Indian electoral system is groundbreaking as it has never been attempted before. In an election scenario, voters are exposed to a myriad of stimuli related to political candidates, parties, promises, and discussions, prompting selective exposure, perception, and integration processes to form the basis for their voting decisions. The study also draws on the voter turnout theory, highlighting the role of social reference groups and their impact on voter behaviour. Furthermore, it emphasizes the under explored domain of psychological and social factors in explaining political attitudes and voting behaviour among the mass public from relative unexplored dimensions, asserting that psychological traits directly influence the voting behaviour. With the Indian electoral system becoming increasingly dynamic due to diverse societal participation and steadily growing influential factors the need for study arises strongly, This research attempt is being carried forward by examining personality through the DISC personality assessment tool and quantifying the voting behaviour through the theory of planned behaviour questionnaire, the study seeks to discern the connections between demographic variables, personality traits and voting behaviour (intention). The components of voting behaviour were formed on the pivotals of theory of planned behaviour (TBH) such as behaviour beliefs, control beliefs and normative beliefs which more precisely create assessment area of voting behaviour intention. The study employs questionnaire with a five - point Likert scale to measure respondents' agreement with statements related to voting behaviour. The research's objectives include exploring the influence of a voter's personality and demographic variables on their voting behaviour and the influence of specific personality types on various facets of voting behaviour. The study's hypotheses posit that voting behaviour is influenced by psycho - social factors, particularly personality and demographic variables, and that different personality types may alternatively influence the voting behaviour intention. In conclusion, this study aims to elevate our comprehension of this context to a higher standard.

Prediction of physical activity and nutritional behaviors based on social cognitive theory in middle-aged population at risk of coronary artery disease in Bandar Abbas

AbstractCoronary artery disease (CAD) is the most common cardiovascular disease and the main cause of mortality in developing countries. Since physical activity and nutritional behaviors are modifiable risk factors in people at risk of CAD, the present study aims to explore the effect of an intervention based on the social cognitive theory (SCT) on physical activity and nutritional behaviors in middle-aged population at risk of CAD in the city of Bandar Abbas. The present cross-sectional study was conducted on 519 middle-aged subjects who visited the healthcare centers in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran, in 2023. The sampling was simple randomization. The data were collected using the general physical activity questionnaire, nutritional behavior questionnaire and a questionnaire based on the social cognitive theory (SCT). Descriptive statistics were used to describe the demographic features of the sample. Pearson correlation coefficient was used to test the relationship between the variables of study. Multiple linear regression was used to test the effect of the SCT constructs on physical activity and nutrition behaviors. All statistical analyses and hypothesis testing were done in SPSS 21, at a significance level of 0.05. A total number of 519 subjects participated in this study, whose average age was 44.23 ± 7.14 years. The results of Pearson correlation test showed a statistically significant positive correlation between nutritional behaviors and the constructs of self-efficacy, collective efficacy, outcome expectations, observational learning, normative beliefs, barriers and opportunities, reinforcement and punishment, and behavioral intention. There was also a significant positive correlation between physical activity and self-efficacy, normative beliefs, social support and behavioral intention. Social support, self-efficacy, normative beliefs, observational learning, behavioral skills and knowledge were found to be the predictors of physical activity. Reinforcement and punishment, normative beliefs, collective efficacy, social support and barriers and opportunities were the predictors of nutritional behaviors in the middle-aged population. As the results of the study showed, it is suggested to increase physical activity in the middle-aged population at risk of CAD using appropriate strategies to strengthen social support through family and friends, improve self-efficacy, identify positive and negative normative beliefs. Plans should be made to improve observational learning, increase behavioral skills, and increase knowledge to improve nutritional behaviors, use appropriate strategies to provide timely and appropriate rewards and punishments, identify and strengthen positive normative beliefs, improve collective efficacy, and increase social support. To this aim, families and other individuals around the middle-aged population can help remove barriers and create opportunities.

What is the tertiary norm of belief?

Abstract Timothy Williamson (in ‘Justifications, excuses, and sceptical scenarios’) distinguishes three kinds of norm for belief, which he calls ‘primary’, ‘secondary’ and ‘tertiary’. He argues that a belief is justified if it satisfies the primary norm and excused if it satisfies only the tertiary norm. The argument turns on cases of intuitively unjustified belief in which the tertiary norm is satisfied, on Williamson’s rough-and-ready statement of that norm. I argue that, once we state the tertiary norm more carefully, it is clear that it is not satisfied in these cases. So we need some other reason to think that the tertiary norm is not justifying.

Determinants of energy conservation behaviour in small hospitality firms: application of the extended value belief norm theory

The study aims to investigate the energy conservation behaviour of owners and managers of small hospitality firms by incorporating social norms into an extended Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) model. In addition, the study examines the mediating effects of causal chain of the VBN model in the context of energy conservation behaviour. The world faces serious environmental challenges such as loss of biodiversity, pollution, depletion of natural resources and global warming. One of the causes of these environmental challenges is the production and consumption of energy by households and firms. The hospitality sector uses a significant amount of energy in its operation leading to negative environmental impacts. Reducing energy use will improve environmental and financial sustainability of hospitality firms. Energy conservation behaviour is one of the significant ways to reduce energy consumption. The study adopts the survey method for data collection and the respondents are conveniently sampled. The Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling is used for data analysis. Based on a dataset of 360 respondents, the study finds that the extended VBM model that includes social norms is applicable in explaining the energy conservation behaviour of owners/managers of small hospitality firms. The mediating effects of the causal chain of the VBN model are significant. The theoretical implication is the applicability of an extended VBN model that includes social norms to predict energy conservation behaviour. Recommendations on how to improve energy conservation behaviour include improving the level of awareness of ecological problems caused by energy consumption. The study aims to investigate the energy conservation behaviour of owners and managers of small hospitality firms by incorporating social norms into an extended Value-Belief-Norm (VBN) model. In addition, the study examines the mediating effects of causal chain of the VBN model in the context of energy conservation behaviour. The world faces serious environmental challenges such as loss of biodiversity, pollution, depletion of natural resources and global warming. One of the causes of these environmental challenges is the production and consumption of energy by households and firms. The hospitality sector uses a significant amount of energy in its operation leading to negative environmental impacts. Reducing energy use will improve environmental and financial sustainability of hospitality firms. Energy conservation behaviour is one of the significant ways to reduce energy consumption. The study adopts the survey method for data collection and the respondents are conveniently sampled. The Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modelling is used for data analysis. Based on a dataset of 360 respondents, the study finds that the extended VBM model that includes social norms is applicable in explaining the energy conservation behaviour of owners/managers of small hospitality firms. The mediating effects of the causal chain of the VBN model are significant. The theoretical implication is the applicability of an extended VBN model that includes social norms to predict energy conservation behaviour. Recommendations on how to improve energy conservation behaviour include improving the level of awareness of ecological problems caused by energy consumption.

Dual-Stage Analysis Combining Structural Equation Modeling and Machine Learning for Low-Carbon Travel Intention of Urban Residents

Guiding urban residents to travel with low carbon is an important measure to reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable urban development. To explore the important factors affecting urban residents’ low-carbon travel intention, this study proposes a composite model of urban residents’ low-carbon travel intention based on the composite framework of the theory of planned behavior and value belief norm theory. A total of 398 valid pieces of data were collected in Qingdao, China. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to empirically analyze the data to identify the predictors that have a significant effect on low-carbon travel intention. Then, two machine learning methods, artificial neural networks (ANN) and extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), were used to conduct sensitivity analysis on the SEM results to identify the determinants that affect residents’ low-carbon travel intention. The results showed that personal norm, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control have a significant direct effect on residents’ low-carbon travel intention. Policy factors can indirectly affect low-carbon travel intention, through mediating variables. Environmental awareness and travel time perception have a direct effect on both residents’ attitude and subjective norms. In addition, the explained variance (R2) of low-carbon travel intention by ANN and XGBoost is 0.75 and 0.77, respectively. The Root Square Mean Error (RMSE) in both models are small, which verifies the effectiveness of the two machine learning methods. The results can provide a reference basis for policymakers to prompt urban sustainable development.

A qualitative analysis of parents' beliefs about portable pool safety behaviours.

The aim of this study was to develop an in-depth understanding of the beliefs parents hold regarding portable pool safety behaviours using the theory of planned behaviour (TPB). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with parents (N = 15) of children aged 5 years and younger who owned a portable pool. Interviews examined three key safety behaviours: supervising within arms' reach, fencing portable pools deeper than 30 cm, and emptying and storing portable pools safely after use. Parents identified a range of advantages, disadvantages, normative influences, and facilitators and barriers towards the three behaviours. The identification of these salient behavioural, normative, and control beliefs enrich limited understandings of portable pool safety behaviours of parents with young children. Current findings fill a knowledge gap in portable pool safety and provide potential targets for messages to improve parents' behaviours for their young children around portable pools in the hope of preventing loss of life.

The norm of reasoning

ABSTRACT The paper presents and defends a new account of reasoning. Reasoning is essentially subject to a constitutive norm, the norm of following sufficient normative reasons. Instead of rule-following, following normative reasons is essential. After clarifying the view, three arguments in its support will be presented. They concern the scope of (correct) reasoning, the value of (correct) reasoning, and the relation between reasoning and treating a consideration as a reason. Two objections – concerning the knowledge norm of belief and cases of improperly treating a consideration as a reason – will be dealt with.

PSXII-15 Theory of planned behavior-based evaluation of technology adoption in dairy farms

Abstract Studies on the adoption of farm innovations should include underlying psychological constructs that affect decisions and behavior of farmers such as intention, perceptions, and beliefs. Dairy farming technologies are continually evolving, making it necessary to review current farm practices frequently. Dairy farmers are actively exploring various alternative investment options to optimize production processes, minimize costs, and increase overall efficiency. However, careful evaluation is crucial to understanding the knowledge and attitude of farmers to these tools. We utilize psychological constructs from the theory of planned behavior approach to understand the technology adoption behavior of dairy farmers. The theory of planned behavior is a psychological model that explains how human behavior is influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. We add product marketing as another essential component based on the industry relevance. The objective was to understand the adoption decisions and the perceived usefulness of precision technologies by dairy farmers in Texas. Dairy farmers were delivered printed copies of a pretested survey instrument to assess technology use, on-farm decisions, and producers’ planned behavior related to technology adoption on farms. Thirty-two completed surveys were returned and analyzed for descriptive and Structural Equation Modeling using Microsoft Excel and SAS (ver. 9.4). When choosing a technology, respondents ranked (on a scale of 1 to 5; unimportant to very important) the availability of local tech support as the most important factor (score 4.16; range 3 to 5), followed by proven performance through research (4.0; 3 to 5), simplicity of use (3.82; 3 to 5), benefit to cost ratio (3.66; 2 to 5), and total cost of investment (3.5; 1 to 5). Regarding barriers to investment decisions, 26% ranked lack of access to capital as a primary issue, followed by environmental regulations (12.5%), political environment (12.5%), and sitting regulations (12.5%). The intention of farmers to utilize the technology was influenced by farmers’ evaluation of the use of technology (attitude), their perceptions about the social pressure and marketing (subjective norm), and their perceptions about their utility on farmers (perceived behavioral control). The three most influential behavioral beliefs as the drivers of attitude were an increase in farm production and performance, monitoring cows, and labor savings. The three most influential normative beliefs were drivers of the subjective norm: family and friends, neighbors, and marketing. The three most influential control beliefs were drivers of perceived behavioral control: availability of local tech support, benefit-to-cost ratio, and simplicity and ease of use. Respondents indicate that having a standard price, reduced cost, and providing a detailed cost analysis when marketing the technology increases confidence in purchasing and integration. The findings suggest developing better products, ensuring reasonable pricing, and performing proper validations to enhance the farmer’s trust helps to increase technology adoption in dairy farms.

Ecological consciousness, moral self-identity and green conspicuous behavior: Moderating role of religiosity

Due to its substantial ecological imprint, the fashion industry is coming under closer examination in a time of increased environmental awareness. Therefore, the interplay of ecological awareness and sustainable consumption in the fashion industry is the focus of this empirical research. This study examines the mediating role of empowerment and self-transformation between moral self-identity, ecological consciousness consumer behavior (ECCB), and consumers' purchase behaviors, along with the moderating role of religiosity. Under the Value Belief Norm theory paradigm, the hypotheses were assessed after collecting data from 542 consumers in Pakistan. The results indicate that empowerment and self-transformation mediate the relationship between self-identity and ECCB with consumers' purchase behaviors. Also, the results provide strong support for religiosity as the boundary condition. The empirical results add to the body of research by illuminating the complex relationship between environmental consciousness and actual spending behaviors, particularly in the context of fashion.

The Mediating Role of Normative Beliefs about Aggression on the Relationship between Violent Digital Games and Students’ Aggressive Behaviour

Many adolescents are exposed to violent content in digital games due to their widespread use. Aggression among students is becoming more common throughout the world, including in Jordan. In light of this, the study explored how exposure to violent digital games influences students' aggression. Normative beliefs about aggression (NBAA) are also discussed based on the prediction that this variable mediates the relationships between violent digital games and aggressive behaviour (AB). A cross-sectional study design with 347 randomly selected individuals from Jordanian schools was analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences to examine the relationships between variables. The results showed that NBAA and digital games were directly related to AB, and NBAA partially mediated the relationships between violent digital games and AB. This study concluded that violent content in digital games increased aggression. Furthermore, insights were provided into the mechanism behind the impacts of violent digital games on adolescent aggression and suggestions were offered to mitigate aggression.

Why is Vietnam a motorcycle nation? A transport psychology study

This article investigates the reasons why people use motorcycles in two Vietnamese megacities, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC). The research targets university students. The various factors that lead students to use motorcycles, as well as the linkages between those factors, are assessed through a statistical technique known as Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). Conceptually, this study is guided by an extended version of the Theory of Planned Behaviour, a well-established socio-psychological framework. We find that widespread motorcycle use among students is linked to behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs. Motorcycles are variously seen as convenient, inexpensive, fun, flexible, modern, and wonted – whereas factors such as health, safety, status, and environmental impact are irrelevant. But motorcycle use is also determined by habit and values (progressive or conservative). In fact, the effect of these two additional constructs is larger than the effect of beliefs. In addition, we find that higher income students, those who come from the provinces, and those who are more attached to cars are more prone to using motorcycles as well.

Effects of a Brief Safe Drinking Intervention on Depressive and Anxiety Symptomatology: Examining Potential Side Effects of Deviance Regulation Theory Interventions.

College students are at a heightened risk of experiencing depression and anxiety symptomatology and engaging in maladaptive alcohol use. Understanding how alcohol interventions impact emotional functioning is essential. One such intervention uses Deviance Regulation Theory (DRT), which posits that behavior can be modified using targeted messaging as a function of perceived norms. DRT has been shown to be effective at increasing responsible drinking behaviors and decreasing alcohol-related consequences. However, it is unclear if this intervention influences emotional functioning. The current examines the impact of a DRT intervention on emotional functioning. Participants (n = 147) were recruited from a large Southeastern university. The study included a screening phase, intervention, and six-week follow-up. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: a positive message condition about people who drink responsibly, a negative message condition about people who do not drink responsibly, and an active control condition. During the study, all participants reported on depression/anxiety symptoms, alcohol use, responsible drinking, and alcohol-related consequences. Mixed-effects regression was used to analyze the data. Results suggest an overall reduction of depressive and anxiety symptomatology in the intervention conditions but not in the control condition. In the positive condition, there was a decrease in depressive and anxiety symptomatology. The messaging was not moderated by normative beliefs. The negative condition also led to decreases in depression and anxiety symptomatology over time. In addition, perceived norms moderated the negative message in the first week after the intervention, an effect consistent with DRT. Prior research indicates this intervention is efficacious for the reduction of adverse alcohol outcomes; these data show that the intervention may also have positive effects on downstream mental health outcomes.

Preservice Biology Teachers’ Beliefs About Evidence-Based Medicine and Alternative Medicine

AbstractHealth-related discussions in society and the media—specifically during the COVID-19 pandemic—showed that individuals are confronted with Alternative Medicine and Evidence-Based Medicine. When making reflective decisions about these treatments, both knowledge and beliefs are important. Previous research with preservice biology teachers has shown that they commonly use Alternative Medicine, although they have little knowledge about it. To date, systematic studies on preservice biology teachers’ beliefs about Alternative Medicine and Evidence-Based Medicine are lacking. Based on the Theory of Planned Behavior, the present study elicited German (N = 40) preservice biology teachers’ beliefs about these treatments via an open-ended questionnaire. Behavioral, normative, and control beliefs were categorized using qualitative content analysis. The results showed that the participants mentioned the efficacy, scientificity, and safety of treatments as important beliefs. For Alternative Medicine, beliefs were related to scientific evidence for its efficacy, naturalness and mild effects. These beliefs indicate that some preservice biology teachers do not have a clear understanding of Evidence-Based Medicine and Alternative Medicine, which can influence their decision-making. The results highlight the need to incorporate Alternative Medicine and Evidence-Based Medicine into health-related decision-making within biology education and biology teacher education and provide a basis for further research.

Certified Food Safety Management Systems Assessed through the Lenses of Food Safety Culture and Locus of Control: A Pilot Study.

The approach to ensure food safety (FS) has evolved, including the concept of FS culture, which has been shaped by both the legislation and the scientific literature. In this study, two companies that produce foods associated with potential risks of cross-contamination (gluten-free foods and frozen pastry, respectively) and are certified according to international voluntary FS standards, such as the British Retail Council Global Standard (BRC) and the International Featured Standards Food Version (IFS), were investigated to assess: (a) if the assessment of FS culture's pillars can uncover unexpected critical areas; (b) if the scores of the FS culture's pillars are related to personal traits, namely, age, seniority in the company and locus of control orientation, i.e., the beliefs that an event is the result of external factors (luck, destiny or superior beings), or the result of internal factors (human behavior). Questionnaires for the survey and the scoring system applied were selected from the literature. Results showed that all food handlers had an optimistic bias, which paradoxically could be the consequence of the rigorous application of hygienic procedures. The younger food handlers had significantly (p < 0.05) lower commitment than the older ones. Moreover, the segment of food handlers having an external locus orientation demonstrated weaker normative beliefs than those having an internal locus of control orientation. Results showed that the FS culture survey, which is related to the shared FS culture, could disclose unknown weakness in third-party certified companies, even if the well implemented principles of voluntary FS standards are aligned with the FS-culture pillars. Moreover, the segmentation of food handlers according to their age and the locus of control assessment could provide additional information on the individual orientation toward FS behavior. Hence these tools could assist the leaders in the management of the dynamic nature of human capital.

Environmental Behavior Framework Revisited: Where Do We Stand Ten Years Later and Where Do We Go from Here?

Increasing environmental challenges are prompting sport managers to act to minimize negative ecological impacts. Educational opportunities for sport management students are critical for developing awareness and understanding of environmental sustainability across the sport industry. In 2012, Casper and Pfahl examined the personal environmental actions of sport administration and recreation students. The purpose of our current research is to expand on Casper and Pfahl’s work by assessing the predictive relationships of values, beliefs, and norms on behaviors related to environmental sustainability using the Value–Belief–Norm (VBN) framework. Sport management students (N = 510) representing 23 higher education institutions completed the online survey. Structural equation modeling showed minimal changes over ten years. Norms were the strongest predictors of pro-environmental behaviors, and results indicated that students hold sport management organizations to a higher environmental standard than traditional businesses. The authors provide discussion and recommendations on bridging the gap between academia and industry to better prepare students for their professional futures in the sport industry.

The development of an implicit measure of treatment expectations

ABSTRACT In three preregistered studies, we investigated whether implicit treatment expectations, using a relational implicit measure (the MT-PEP), vary between participants provided opposing information about novel medical treatments (Studies 1 and 2) or who responded based on normative beliefs toward common over-the-counter drugs (Study 3). The studies revealed large Cohen’s d effect sizes of both novel and well-known treatment information within the implicit measure. The studies also provide evidence of convergent validity, with MT-PEP scores associated with explicit beliefs about medicine and over-the-counter drug familiarity. Implicit treatment expectations can be assessed and offer a novel tool for the intersection of social psychology and medicine.