Normal Pigeons Research Articles

Treatment and prevention of pigeon diarrhea through the application of Lactobacillus SNK-6

In the pigeon industry, treating and preventing diarrhea is vital because it is a serious health problem for pigeons. This study investigated the incidence of diarrhea in three pigeon farms in Shanghai, and analyzed the microflora through 16S rDNA high-throughput sequencing. Four strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from pigeon diarrhea feces were administered via gavage to healthy pigeons, with each pigeon receiving 2×108 CFU. Pigeons that developed diarrhea after E. coli challenge were treated with 3g of Lactobacillus salivarius SNK-6 (L. salivarius SNK-6) health sand (1.6×107 CFU/g). Then, a mass feeding experiment expanded to 688 pairs of pigeons with three replicates, each receiving 3 g of health sand containing L. salivarius SNK-6 (1.6 × 107 CFU/g) every 2 weeks, and fecal status monitored and recorded. The study found that the relative abundance of the Lactobacillus genus and L. salivarius in feces from pigeons with diarrhea was significantly lower than in normal pigeon feces (P<0.05). In contrast, E. coli showed a higher abundance and diversity in feces from pigeons with diarrhea than in normal feces (P<0.05). Three out of the four isolated E. coli strains caused pigeon diarrhea, resulting in a significant reduction in microbial diversity in fecal samples (P<0.05). Both the small group attack experiment and the mass-fed additive experiment in pigeon farms demonstrated that feeding L. salivarius SNK-6 effectively cured and prevented diarrhea. Pigeons fed with L. salivarius SNK-6 exhibited no diarrhea, while the control group had a 10% diarrhea rate. In summary, a deficiency of Lactobacillus or a high abundance of E. coli in the intestine could easily cause pigeon diarrhea. Feeding L. salivarius SNK-6 could treat pigeon diarrhea, and continuous supplementation could maintain stable preventive effects.

Assessment of the pigeon (Columba livia) retina with spectral domain optical coherence tomography.

BackgroundTo assess the normal retina of the pigeon eye using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) and establish a normative reference.MethodsTwelve eyes of six ophthalmologically normal pigeons (Columba livia) were included. SD-OCT images were taken with dilated pupils under sedation. Four meridians, including the fovea, optic disc, red field, and yellow field, were obtained in each eye. The layers, including full thickness (FT), ganglion cell complex (GCC), thickness from the retinal pigmented epithelium to the outer nuclear layer (RPE-ONL), and from the retinal pigmented epithelium to the inner nuclear layer (RPE-INL), were manually measured.ResultsThe average FT values were significantly different among the four meridians (p < 0.05), with the optic disc meridian being the thickest (294.0 ± 13.9 µm). The average GCC was thickest in the optic disc (105.3 ± 27.1 µm) and thinnest in the fovea meridian (42.8 ± 15.3 µm). The average RPE-INL of the fovea meridian (165.5 ± 18.3 µm) was significantly thicker than that of the other meridians (p < 0.05). The average RPE-ONL of the fovea, optic disc, yellow field, and red field were 91.2 ± 5.2 µm, 87.7 ± 5.3 µm, 87.6 ± 6.5 µm, and 91.4 ± 3.9 µm, respectively. RPE-INL and RPE-ONL thickness of the red field meridian did not change significantly with measurement location (p > 0.05).ConclusionsMeasured data could be used as normative references for diagnosing pigeon retinopathies and further research on avian fundus structure.

Intraocular Pressure Measurement by Rebound Tonometry (TonoVet) in Normal Pigeons (Columba livia).

We evaluated the applicability of a rebound tonometer (TonoVet) in pigeon eyes and established normal reference intraocular pressure (IOP) values in healthy pigeons; 20 eyes of euthanized pigeons were used for calibration of the TonoVet and 48 eyes of 24 adult pigeons were used for measurement of reference IOP. First, IOP of pigeon eyes ex vivo were measured using the 'd' and the 'p' modes of the TonoVet and compared to manometric IOP values from 5 to 80 mm Hg. Then, to establish normal reference values, IOP was measured from clinically normal pigeons in vivo. The 'd' and the 'p' modes of the TonoVet showed a strong linear correlation with the manometric IOP (R2 = .996 and .991, respectively). The obtained regression formulas were: y1 = 0.439x + 2.059 and y2 = 0.330x - 0.673, respectively (y1, 'd' mode of TonoVet; y2, 'p' mode of TonoVet; x, manometric IOP). The 'd' and the 'p' modes consistently measured one-half and one-third of the actual IOP, respectively. Therefore, the formula obtained through the 'd' mode was applied to obtain reference values. The calibrated IOP of normal pigeon eyes was 19.5 ± 4.4 mm Hg. The actual IOP could be calculated using the presented formula. Considering the limitations of the 'p' mode, use of the 'd' mode is more appropriate. Therefore, the TonoVet rebound tonometry under the 'd' mode is a reliable method for measuring IOP in pigeons.

Ultrasound biomicroscopy and tonometry in ophthalmologically normal pigeon eyes.

To evaluate the feasibility of ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) and tonometry in pigeons and to provide biometric reference ranges for normal pigeon eyes. Ten pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) with ophthalmologically normal eyes. Ophthalmic examinations, including slit-lamp biomicroscopy and tonometry, were performed to confirm that the eyes were normal. UBM was then performed on the left eye. On each obtained image, the ciliary cleft (CC) length, CC width, and CC area, and iridocorneal angle (ICA) were measured. Richly vascularized iris was observed in all pigeon eyes. Mean intraocular pressure was 11.7 ± 1.6 mmHg, without any statistical difference between the left and right eyes. The UBM scanning procedure was well tolerated in all pigeons. Mean values of CC length, CC width, CC area, and ICA were 1.55 ± 0.17 mm, 0.36 ± 0.05 mm, 0.39 ± 0.04 mm2 , and 15.17 ± 1.06°, respectively. Ultrasound biomicroscopy could be a useful diagnostic tool to evaluate anterior ocular segment of pigeons.

MEASUREMENT OF INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE IN THE DOMESTIC PIGEON (COLUMBIA LIVIA).

The purpose of this study was to establish intraocular pressure values in clinically normal pigeons. One hundred (52 male and 48 female) healthy pigeons ( Columbia livia ) of six different breeds, ranging in age from 20 to 51 mo were used in the study. Pigeons were gently physically restrained in a dorsoventral position without any pressure or extension to the head and neck. A rebound tonometer with a disposable probe was held horizontally and 4-5 mm from the central corneal surface. Calibration of the device was set to "P." Overall, the mean ± SD intraocular pressure values of all eyes were 6.1 ± 0.9 mmHg (ranging from 3 to 9 mmHg). Mean ± SD values for left and right eyes were 6.1 ± 1.0 and 6.0 ± 1.2 mmHg, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in IOP between the left eye and right eye or between males and females (P = 0.49; P = 0.74). Analysis of variance revealed that there were no significant differences in the IOP between the breeds (P = 0.22).

The journal of State Medicine. Volume XX: 341-368, 1912. The etiology of the deficiency diseases, Beri-beri, polyneuritis in birds, epidemic dropsy, scurvy, experimental scurvy in animals, infantile scurvy, ship beri-beri, pellagra.

Cxxxi. Pyruvic Acid as an Intermediary Metabolite in the Brain Tissue of Avitaminous and Normal Pigeons. Get access Rudolph Albert Peters, Rudolph Albert Peters Department of Biochemistry, Oxford. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Robert Henry, Robert Henry Department of Biochemistry, Oxford. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Stewart Thompson Stewart Thompson Department of Biochemistry, Oxford. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Nutrition Reviews, Volume 33, Issue 6, June 1975, Pages 176–177, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1975.tb05095.x Published: 01 June 1975

The Biochemical Journal. Volume 28, 1934: pages 917-925: CXXXI. Pyruvic acid as an intermediary metabolite in the brain tissue of avitaminous and normal pigeons. By Rudolph Albert Peters and Robert Henry Stewart Thompson.

Journal Article Cxxxi. Pyruvic Acid as an Intermediary Metabolite in the Brain Tissue of Avitaminous and Normal Pigeons. Get access Rudolph Albert Peters, Rudolph Albert Peters Department of Biochemistry, Oxford. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Robert Henry Stewart Thompson Robert Henry Stewart Thompson Department of Biochemistry, Oxford. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic PubMed Google Scholar Nutrition Reviews, Volume 39, Issue 6, June 1981, Pages 240–243, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1981.tb07450.x Published: 01 June 1981

Isolation and characterization of a coronavirus from pigeons with pancreatitis

To identify and partially characterize a coronaviruslike virus isolated from naturally infected pigeons. 50 specific pathogen-free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs, 30 White Leghorn SPF chickens, and 12 clinically normal pigeons. Pancreatic tissue specimens from sick pigeons were inoculated into SPF embryonated chicken eggs for viral isolation and investigation of morphologic and hemagglutinating properties of the isolate, called PSH050513. Furthermore, virulence studies in SPF chickens and experimental pigeons were performed. The spike (S) glycoprotein gene of PSH050513 was further sequenced and analyzed. PSH050513 was isolated and identified from the experimentally infected pigeons by a routine method, which was in accordance with Koch's postulates. The complete S protein (1,167 amino acids) was compared with published S protein sequences of other avian and mammalian coronaviruses. A high degree of sequence identity (79.3% to 99.6%) was observed between the S protein sequence of PSH050513 and published sequences of avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV); only limited identity (< 37.8%) was observed with turkey coronavirus and mammalian coronaviruses. Furthermore, when the virus was inoculated into SPF chickens, pancreatitis developed. PSH050513 has been tentatively identified as a novel member of group 3 coronaviruses that have close genetic relationships with IBV strains.

Evaluation of polymerase chain reaction and dot blot hybridisation tests in the diagnosis of pigeon circovirus infections

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and dot blot hybridisation (DBH) tests for detecting pigeon circovirus (PiCV) DNA were developed and evaluated using tissue samples obtained from diseased and clinically normal pigeons, which originated in Belgium and Northern Ireland. When PCR product was visually detected, the limit of detection of the PCR test was 31 fg, while that of the DBH was 1.6 pg. For evaluation purposes, the results of the PCR and DBH tests, performed with DNAs extracted from samples of bursa of Fabricius (BF), were compared with those of in situ hybridisation (ISH) and histology. In 32 samples tested by all four tests, 27 (84%) were positive by PCR, 24 (75%) were positive by ISH, 20 (63%) were positive by DBH, and 13 (41%) were positive by histology. Additional PCR testing showed that in some disease-affected birds, PiCV DNA could be detected in a range of tissues including thymus, spleen, liver, kidney and brain. The PCR detection of PiCV DNA in BF samples from clinically normal birds indicated that PCR can detect infections in the absence of disease, a finding that mitigates against its use as a disease diagnostic. In addition, nucleotide sequence determinations indicated that PCR test performance was adversely affected by the sequence diversity exhibited by selected PiCVs. The application of the DBH test to dilutions of test samples indicated that the BF from some diseased pigeons contained very large amounts of virus DNA, as much as 10 13 genome copies/g tissue, and suggested that this test may be a convenient method of providing a semi-quantitative estimate of virus load.

'Natural' and artificial monocular deprivation effects on thalamic soma sizes in pigeons.

The dominance for visual pattern analysis of the left hemisphere in normal pigeons and the concomitant morphological asymmetries in the optic tectum can be attributed to a 'natural' prehatch monocular deprivation of the left eye resulting from an asymmetrical embryonic position within the egg. Using control animals and pigeons which were monocularly deprived for 10 days after hatching, the present study could show that the cellular soma sizes of the nucleus rotundus within the tectofugal visual pathway are modified by light experience depending on the timepoint and direction of lateralized stimulation. Although rotundal cell size is thus ontogenetically modified in an activity-dependent manner, a detailed comparison makes it likely that the mechanisms which govern developmental plasticity of visual pathways differ between birds and mammals.

Trigeminal deafferentation and prehension in the pigeon

During the grasping and manipulation phases of the pigeon's ingestive pecking behavior, jaw opening movements are scaled to the size of the target (food) object. To assess the contribution of beak mechanoreceptor afferents to the control of scaling we examined the effects of bilateral trigeminal deafferentation upon the kinematics of jaw opening trajectories. Deafferented subjects exhibited both a transient reduction in the accuracy of peck localization and a more persistent deficit in the effectiveness of their ingestive pecking response. However, they continued to exhibit the same classes of jaw movement described for the normal pigeon. The functional relation between target size and gape remained unchanged after deafferentation as did the relationships among kinematic variables controlling jaw opening. However, deafferentation produced small but significant increase in the absolute values of peak gape for both grasping and mandibulation which reflects an increase in peak opening velocity. The results are discussed in relation to the problem of sensory control of rapid targeted movements.

A frequency and time domain study of the horizontal and vertical vestibuloocular reflex in the pigeon.

1. The horizontal and vertical vestibuloocular reflex (HVOR and VVOR, respectively) was studied in four chronically instrumented pigeons. Eye movements were measured using the magnetic search-coil technique and were produced by rotation in the dark. During the rotation paradigms, the pigeons were either pharmacologically aroused (using amphetamine) or drug free (normal). The pigeon HVOR and VVOR were tested using step and sinusoidal rotational stimulation. The range of frequencies (0.03-6.0 Hz) and the magnitude of the sinusoidal stimuli were chosen to match those used in a previous study of the responses of semicircular canal primary afferents (SCPAs) in unanesthetized (i.e., normal) pigeons. 2. The gain of the HVOR and VVOR in both normal and aroused pigeons was independent of stimulus magnitude (6-30 degrees/s) over the frequency range tested. In aroused pigeons, the frequency independent gain (G) of the HVOR (G = 0.6) and VVOR (G = 0.9) was roughly twice that for normal pigeons. Pigeon VOR phase under all combinations of orientation and arousal level was independent of stimulus magnitude except at the lowest frequency tested (0.03 Hz). At this frequency, phase lead decreased as stimulus magnitude increased for the HVOR and VVOR in both normal and aroused pigeons. 3. The step and sinusoidal gains were greater for the VVOR than for the HVOR under the same level of arousal. Neither the gain nor the dominant time constant of the VOR (tau vor) differed for rotation direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) for the HVOR or VVOR in normal or aroused pigeons. 4. The mean value of tau vor was 4.0 +/- 0.5 (SE) s as estimated from frequency response data and 4.3 +/- 0.4 s as estimated from step response data for the HVOR and VVOR in both normal and aroused pigeons. In comparison, the mean value of the dominant or cupular time constant (tau c) of normal pigeon SCPAs was approximately 10 s as estimated from frequency response data. These results indicate that tau vor is shorter than tau c in the pigeon. 5. At higher frequencies, the pigeon HVOR and VVOR exhibit an increasing phase lag unaccompanied by a gain change--characteristics produced by a pure time delay. The value of this time delay was about 7 ms for both the HVOR and VVOR in both normal and aroused pigeons. The HVOR and VVOR in normal and aroused pigeons lacked the higher frequency lead characteristics present in the frequency responses of most pigeon SCPAs.

Antigen presentation by chemically modified splenocytes induces antigen-specific T cell unresponsiveness in vitro and in vivo.

We investigated the antigen specificity and presentation requirements for inactivation of T lymphocytes in vitro and in vivo. In vitro studies revealed that splenocytes treated with the crosslinker 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide (ECDI) and soluble antigen fragments failed to stimulate significant proliferation by normal pigeon cytochrome c-specific T cell clones, suggesting that the chemical treatment inactivated full antigen presentation function. However, T cell clones exposed to ECDI-treated splenocytes and antigen in vitro were rendered unresponsive for at least 8 d to subsequent antigen stimulation with normal presenting cells. As predicted by the in vitro results, specific T cell unresponsiveness was also induced in vivo in B10.A mice injected intravenously with B10.A, but not B10.A(4R), splenocytes coupled with pigeon cytochrome c via ECDI. The antigen and MHC specificity of the induction of this T cell unresponsiveness in vitro and in vivo was identical to that required for T cell activation. These results suggest that nonmitogenic T cell recognition of antigen/MHC on ECDI-modified APCs results in the functional inactivation of T cell clones.

Olfactory and nonolfactory odor detection in pigeons: Elucidation by a cardiac acceleration paradigm

A technique for the Pavlovian conditioning of cardiac acceleration in response to odorants was developed and used to compare the sensitivity of pigeons to four odorants before and after resection of the olfactory nerves. This method provided quite reliable psychophysical functions yet required relatively little training time. Thresholds of normal pigeons to n-amyl acetate, n-butyl acetate, benzaldehyde and butanol were approximately 10 −4, 10 −5, 10 −3.3 and 10 −4.3 of vapor saturation, respectively. Following resection surgery, sensitivity decreased by 2 to 4 log units. When transection of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve was combined with olfactory nerve resection, little evidence of a further decline in odor sensitivity was seen. Based on these results each of these compounds could be used, at concentrations below the postoperative threshold, to study, in isolation, both normal and reconstituting olfactory systems in the pigeon.

Morphine applied to the ventral tegmentum suppresses centrally-but not peripherally- induced aversive effects

Pigeons trained to discriminate between visual stimuli in a key-pecking task normally show excellent interocular transfer of training (IOT) when trained with only one eye and then tested with the ‘naive’ eye. When the dorsal supraoptic decussation (DSO) was sectioned and pigeons were then trained monocularly to peck at keys in an interocular transfer experiment, they failed to show normal IOT of a simultaneous horizontal-vertical discrimination. In contrast, another group of pigeons, in which the DSO was sectioned after they had already learned the discrimination with one eye covered, showed excellent IOT postoperatively when the blindfold was moved to the other eye. Since the pigeon uses the normally binocular portion of its retina to scan the discriminative stimuli in a key-pecking task and the DSO carries converging binocular input from the retinorecipient zone of the thalamus to the visual Wulst, the results suggest that IOT in the pigeon is the simple consequence of information reaching both hemispheres from a single eye via converging binocular pathways. Thus, cutting the DSO before training with the first eye eliminates IOT whereas cutting it after training with the first eye does not (since information has already reached the two hemispheres from the normally binocular portion of that eye). These findings complement earlier work showing that IOT is absent in normal pigeons in those situations in which they scan the discriminative stimuli with the monocular portion of their visual fields.

Interocular transfer in the pigeon after lesions of the dorsal supraoptic decussation

Pigeons trained to discriminate between visual stimuli in a key-pecking task normally show excellent interocular transfer of training (IOT) when trained with only one eye and then tested with the ‘naive’ eye. When the dorsal supraoptic decussation (DSO) was sectioned and pigeons were then trained monocularly to peck at keys in an interocular transfer experiment, they failed to show normal IOT of a simultaneous horizontal-vertical discrimination. In contrast, another group of pigeons, in which the DSO was sectioned after they had already learned the discrimination with one eye covered, showed excellent IOT postoperatively when the blindfold was moved to the other eye. Since the pigeon uses the normally binocular portion of its retina to scan the discriminative stimuli in a key-pecking task and the DSO carries converging binocular input from the retinorecipient zone of the thalamus to the visual Wulst, the results suggest that IOT in the pigeon is the simple consequence of information reaching both hemispheres from a single eye via converging binocular pathways. Thus, cutting the DSO before training with the first eye eliminates IOT whereas cutting it after training with the first eye does not (since information has already reached the two hemispheres from the normally binocular portion of that eye). These findings complement earlier work showing that IOT is absent in normal pigeons in those situations in which they scan the discriminative stimuli with the monocular portion of their visual fields.

Hearing thresholds of normal and fenestrated deaf pigeons. A behavioural study on hearing with the vestibular organ.

Hearing thresholds were measured for 5 normal pigeons with the heart-rate conditioning method. After extirpation of the membranous cochlea on both sides and fenestration of the lateral canals, hearing thresholds were measured again with the same method at 250, 750 and 1500 Hz. Hearing thresholds found in this way for deaf fenestrated pigeons correspond very well to threshold values for the "Tullio effect". Electrical activity in the vestibular nerve evoked by sound is thought to be the origin of these phenomena.

Interocular transfer of visual discriminations in Wulst-ablated pigeons

Interocular transfer (IOT) of monocularly learned pattern, brightness and color discriminations was studied in normal pigeons and in pigeons with a bilateral ablation of the visual Wulst. No significant differences were found between the two groups in terms of both rate of monocular learning and degree of IOT. Pigeons with a Wulst ablation which had shown a normal capacity for IOT, subsequently lost this capacity following a section of the supra-optic decussation (DSO). It is concluded that IOT in pigeons does not require the presence of the binocular neurons of the visual Wulst, and that in absence of this structure, IOT must rely on other centers for binocular interaction which receive fibers from the DSO.

Hematological Parameters and Iron Metabolism in Pigeons and Chickens with Phenylhydrazine-Induced Anemia

A single phenylhydrazine injection (1.8 mg/kg body weight in chickens and 2.2 mg/kg body weight in pigeons) was administered intramuscularly to different lots of animals. The modification of hematocrit, hemoglobin, erythrocyte number, reticulocyte concentration, plasma iron, and total iron-binding capacity was monitored versus time. Depression of the hematological parameters in chickens was greatest on the second day (27-40%), and the values returned to normal by day 7. The drop in pigeons was greater (28-51%) and took longer to return to normal (day 22). The highest percentage of reticulocytes was 35-37%. A plasma iron increase was concomitant to cell destruction and decreased later. The plasma iron clearance values showed a double slope line as a result of the presence of reticulocytes. A high correlation existed between iron uptake by red blood cells at 5 min and the reticulocyte concentration. The responses of the two species to the phenylhydrazine were similar, and differences were more quantitative than qualitative. Reticulocytes were present in normal pigeons, which introduces an important variant in iron metabolism in birds.

Pigeons' interhemispheric transfer of autoshaping and other visual discriminations

The interhemispheric transfer of autoshaping and of operantly conditioned color and form discriminations was investigated both in normal pigeons and in pigeons with sectioned tectal and posterior commissures. Operantly conditioned form and color discriminations showed interhemispheric transfer despite damage to, or complete severance of, the tectal and posterior commissures. However, damage to the tectal commissure disrupted interhemispheric transfer of autoshaping, suggesting that the tectal commissure normally carries information about the existence of stimuli which predict food. Apparently some visual discriminations require intact tectal commissures for interhemispheric transfer, yet others do not.