Normal Gasoline Research Articles

Quantum dots luminescent compounds with multimodal luminescence for fuel labeling

The article considers the possibility of labelling oil products using luminescent ‘fingerprints’ based on several types of quantum dots to protect fuel from falsification. For the synthesis of quantum dots, a scalable universal method was proposed using an available large-producible solvent and a stabilizer, oleic acid. Using the developed technique, quantum dots were obtained that luminescence in the entire visible range of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. The formation of nanoparticles was confirmed by a set of instrumental research methods. The determination of the presence of quantum dots in the composition of an oil product was proposed using spectrofluorometry with no additional separation or dialization of nanoparticles from the sample. Using normal regular gasoline as an example, the effect of fuel on the luminescence of quantum dots and their aggregation was studied. The interaction of different types of quantum dots in the composition of the indicator and their influence on each other’s luminescence in solvent and gasoline were analyzed. The minimum detectable by the spectrofluorometric method concentrations of quantum dots in normal gasoline and the optimal proportions of quantum dots of various types in mixtures were determined.

Secondary aerosol formation from a Chinese gasoline vehicle: Impacts of fuel (E10, gasoline) and driving conditions (idling, cruising)

Chassis dynamometer experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of vehicle speed and usage of ethanol-blended gasoline (E10) on formation and evolution of gasoline vehicular secondary organic aerosol (SOA) using a Gothenburg Potential Aerosol Mass (Go: PAM) reactor. The SOA forms rapidly, and its concentration exceeds that of primary organic aerosol (POA) at an equivalent photochemical age (EPA) of ~1 day. The particle effective densities grow from 0.62 ± 0.02 g cm−3 to 1.43 ± 0.07 g cm−3 with increased hydroxyl radical (OH) exposure. The maximum SOA production under idling conditions (4259–7394 mg kg-fuel−1) is ~20 times greater than under cruising conditions. There was no statistical difference between SOA formation from pure gasoline and its formation from E10. The slopes in Van Krevelen diagram indicate that the formation pathways of bulk SOA includes the addition of both alcohol/peroxide functional groups and carboxylic acid formation from fragmentation. A closure estimation of SOA based on bottom-up and top-down methods shows that only 16%–38% of the measured SOA can be explained by the oxidation of measured volatile organic compounds (VOCs), suggesting the existence of missing precursors, e.g. unmeasured VOCs and probably semivolatile or intermediate volatile organic compounds (S/IVOCs). Our results suggest that applying parameters obtained from unified driving cycles to model SOA concentrations may lead to large discrepancies between modeled and ambient vehicular SOA. No reduction in vehicular `SOA production is realized by replacing normal gasoline with E10.

Performance and Emissions of a Spark Ignition Engine Operated with Gasoline Supplemented with Pyrogasoline and Ethanol

The partial replacement of fossil fuels by biofuels contributes to a reduction of CO2 emissions, alleviating the greenhouse effect and climate changes. Furthermore, fuels produced from waste biomass materials have no impact on agricultural land use and reduce deposition of such wastes in landfills. In this paper we evaluate the addition of pyrolysis biogasoline (pyrogasoline) as an additive for fossil gasoline. Pyrogasoline was produced from used cooking oils unfit to produce biodiesel. This study was based on a set of engine tests using binary and ternary mixtures of gasoline with 0, 2.5, and 5% pyrogasoline and ethanol. The use of ternary blends of gasoline and two different biofuels was tested with the purpose of achieving optimal combustion conditions and lower emissions, taking advantage of synergistic effects due to the different properties and chemical compositions of those biofuels. The tests were performed on a spark-ignition engine, operated at full load (100% throttle, or WOT—wide open throttle) between 2000 and 6000 rpm, while recording engine performance and exhaust gases pollutants data. Binary mixtures with pyrogasoline did not improve or worsen the engine’s performance, but the ternary mixtures (gasoline + pyrogasoline + ethanol) positively improved the engine’s performance with torque gains between 0.8 and 3.1% compared to gasoline. All fuels presented CO and unburned hydrocarbons emissions below those produced by this type of engine operated under normal (fossil) gasoline. On the other hand, NOx emissions from oxygenated fuels had contradictory behaviour compared to gasoline. If we consider the gains achieved by the torque with the ternary mixtures and reductions in polluting emissions obtained by mixtures with pyrogasoline, a future for this fuel can be foreseen as a partial replacement of fossil gasoline.

Effects of different compression ratios and spark timings on performance and emissions of a two-wheeler with 30% ethanol-gasoline blend (E30)

30% ethanol blended gasoline (E30) offers significant fuel quality advantages over normal gasoline. As the research octane number of E30 fuel is 100, the compression ratio of the engine was increased for improvement of fuel economy of vehicle. Experimental investigation was carried out on the effect of various compression ratios and spark timings on a two-wheeler with E30 fuel. The experiments were undertaken at different compression ratios (9.4:1, 10.9:1 and 11.5:1) and spark timings under wide-open throttle condition. The combustion, performance and emission characteristics were analyzed at different vehicle speeds. The test results showed that higher compression ratios increased vehicle power and decreased the specific fuel consumption. The maximum in-cylinder pressure increased with higher heat release rate and lower combustion duration. At high compression ratio, the hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions decreased however, oxides of nitrogen emission increased. The spark timing advancement of 4°CA compared to the base timing was found optimal. This study highlights the importance of engine modification for efficient use of high-octane fuels.

Rectangular Cavity Sensor for Distinguishing Between Normal and High-Drivability-Index Gasolines

The Drivability Index (DI) of gasoline is a measure of fuel performance of engine operations. Therefore, distinguishing a gasoline of specific DI in advance is useful for improving engine efficiency and maintenance. We consider the problem of distinguishing between normal gasoline and HiDI (High DI) gasolines and propose an electromagnetic wave-based rectangular cavity sensor. For commercialization, it is designed to have a simple structure and basic resonance mode TM110 in the common frequency range of 5 GHz to 6 GHz. The proposed sensor has a simple structure of monopole radiating electromagnetic waves and a metal rectangular cavity containing gasoline samples. By considering one commercial normal gasoline sample of permittivity 2.157 and five HiDI gasoline samples of permittivity in the range of 2.018 to 2.218, we obtain 11.5 MHz resonance separation at room temperature to the closest HiDI sample from the simulation and 8 MHz resonance separation from the fabricated sensor experiment. To verify the feasibility of the fabricated sensor under temperature variation from 0°C to 20°C, we derived a simple linear distinction function of resonance frequency and S11 parameter and obtained a minimum 4.4MHz resonance separation. These results showed that the distinction performance for normal gasoline is robust to temperature variations. Furthermore, we showed that the distinction property is robust to design parameter errors, installation position variations and sensing time variations. These results show that the proposed sensor can be utilized effectively for distinguishing normal gasoline.

Simulation of effect of bed temperature over producer gas composition using ASPEN PLUS, its experimental validation and emission characteristics of an IC engine

Biomass is the source of energy that is generated from organic materials, which has the capacity to generate power in different means. Gasification is the technique that converts biomass materials into combustible gas by undergoing chemical reactions at high temperature with a controlled oxygen availability. The objective of this study is to determine the performance of downdraft gasifier and emission characteristics of IC engine using producer gases at various bed temperatures. The satisfactory performance of gasification, is theoretically attaining at a gasification temperature range of 500°c to 750°c. The temperature dependency of gasification process in the performance of downdraft gasifier is studied for different types of feed stocks. The downdraft gasifier is simulated using process simulation software ASPEN PLUS. PLUS. It is found that at higher gasification temperatures the quality of producer gas increases considerably. The exhaust emission characteristics and efficiencies of engine with producer gas are comparable with normal gasoline exhaust characteristics.

Cylindrical Cavity Sensor for Distinction of Various Driveability Index Gasoline with Temperature Robustness.

In this paper, a cylindrical cavity sensor based on microwave resonant theory is proposed to distinguish between various driveability index gasolines under temperature variations. The working principle of the proposed sensor is based on the fact that the change in permittivity of gasoline samples inside cavity sensor will also cause a change in resonant frequency. The proposed sensor has good sensitivity in terms of resonant frequency separation, which enables it to capture the minute permittivity changes and distinguish different gasolines. By using a normal gasoline permittivity of 2.15 and changing sensor dimension parameters, the sensor was designed by high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS). The designed sensor has a resonant frequency of 7.119 GHz for the TM012 mode with a 19.2 mm radius, a 35 mm height, and one-port coupling probe of 8 mm height. The proposed cylindrical cavity sensor shows advantages of excellent resonant characteristics of small cavity size and small sample amount. To optimize and verify the parameters of the sensor, many experiments have been carried out using HFSS and a vector network analyzer (VNA). Consequently, the proposed sensor is proven to be robust to temperature changes in terms of resonant frequency separation. The minimum frequency separation to distinguish gasoline samples is found to be larger than 29 MHz with reflection coefficients under −11 dB for temperature changes from −35 °C to 0 °C. The consistency of experimental and theoretical results also are presented, which guarantees accuracy of the sensor for the distinction of gasoline.

Theoretical Study of the Effects of Spark Timing on the Performance and Emissions of a Light-Duty Spark Ignited Engine Running under Either Gasoline or Ethanol or Butanol Fuel Operating Modes

Much research is ongoing to find suitable alternate fuels in order to reduce the exhaust emission levels without deteriorating the basic performance characteristics of conventional spark-ignited (SI) engines. One of the methods to achieve the above problem is the use of alcohols as full supplement fuels to normal gasoline. At the same time, many related research studies have shown that the use of alcohols has a negative impact on some basic engine performance characteristics, e.g., brake power output, etc. On the other hand, spark timing is one of the critical engine operating parameters that significantly influences the combustion mechanism inside the combustion chamber of a SI engine. Therefore, the primary objective of the present work is to investigate the effect of spark timing on the performance and emissions characteristics of a conventional, four-stroke, SI engine running under three different fuel operating modes, viz. with conventional gasoline or ethanol or butanol. The specific investigation is conducted by using an in-house, comprehensive, two-zone phenomenological model. The predictive ability of the model is tested against pertinent experimental data and it is found that the computed results are in good agreement with the respective experimental ones. For all test cases examined herein, the results concern basic engine performance characteristics, i.e., cylinder pressure, power output, specific fuel consumption etc., as well as NO and CO emissions. The main objectives of the work were to record and evaluate the impact that spark timing has on the performance characteristics and emitted pollutants of a conventional SI engine, operating under either conventional gasoline or ethanol or butanol fuel operating modes. Moreover, it deals with the determination of an optimum combination between the type of fuel used and the spark timing, so that probable undesirable effects on engine performance characteristics would be avoided. By comparing this investigation results, it is revealed that the use of alcohols as a full substitute fuel of gasoline accompanied with an appropriate alteration of the spark timing, could be a promising solution to improving both the efficiency and environmental behavior of a light-duty, spark-ignited (SI) engine, without causing any harmful problems to the engine operational lifetime. The conclusions from the study may prove valuable for the application of this technological solution to existing conventional SI engines.

Refined 2013-based vehicle emission inventory and its spatial and temporal characteristics in Zhengzhou, China

Vehicle emission is becoming one of the most important pollution sources because of the increase in vehicle population and activity in China. A more reasonable and complete vehicle emission inventory in Zhengzhou for the year 2013 was developed in this study. This inventory is suitable for local emission factors and vehicle kilometers of travel. Estimates show that the total carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), nitrogen oxide (NOX), particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions were 291Gg, 35Gg, 106Gg, 6Gg, 7Gg, and 3Gg, respectively. Approximately 55% of CO and HC emissions were from light duty gasoline vehicles and normal gasoline motorcycles, whereas approximately 60% of NOX, PM2.5, PM10 and SO2 were from heavy duty diesel vehicles, heavy duty diesel trucks, and medium duty diesel trucks. The spatial distribution of emissions was allocated in grid cells based on a road network and traffic flows with a resolution of 1km×1km at different road types and locations, which shows that the six aforementioned air pollutants have similar characteristics in administrative districts. Emissions are mainly concentrated on the central grid cells of each part and in good agreement with line sources. The spatial characteristics were compared at a resolution of 3km×3km and in a population-based approach. The network approach yields better level estimates in this study. Meanwhile, the preliminary temporal profiles were also established for on-road mobile source.

Particle and VOC Emissions from Stoichiometric Gasoline Direct Injection Vehicles and Correlation Between Particle Number and Mass Emissions

Particle number (PN) emissions from the following types of passenger cars were compared: normal gasoline direct injection (DI), gasoline DI combined with downsized turbocharged technology, gasoline DI with hybrid technology, gasoline multi-point injection (MPI), gasoline MPI hybrid, and diesel with a diesel particulate filter. Particles emitted from all types of vehicles were mainly over 23 nm in size; the number of sub-23 nm particles was negligible when the internal dilution ratio of a volatile particle remover was 3000, suggesting that the anomalous extra sub-23 nm particles reported to be emitted from gasoline DI cars are semi-volatile particles. Simultaneous measurement of organic species in the exhaust found emission peaks corresponding to the engine start process in the case of gasoline DI hybrid cars. A good two-stage linear correlation between particle mass and PN emissions was observed for gasoline DI and MPI cars, with slopes of 2.0 × 1012/mg and 2.5 × 1011/mg below and above 3 mg/km, respectively.

Performance and Emission Evaluation of a Compression Ignition Engine Using Agitated Diesel Fuel

Enhancing the efficiency of normal diesel cycle and gasoline cycle is gaining more importance because of depleting fossil fuel resources and other environmental issues. In normal operation the efficiency of diesel cycle is about 37 - 44%. So diesel cycle efficiency should be increased or otherwise it should be replaced with alternate fuels. Increasing the efficiency of the cycle leads to lower fuel consumption and other economic benefits. Thermal efficiency of the diesel mainly depends on compression ratio and combustion parameters such as injection timing, injection pressure and ignition delay period. Thermal efficiency also depends on fuel properties such as viscosity, density and cetane number (CN). This paper discuss about the performance evaluation of diesel fuel in a CI engine when the fuel properties are pre-enhanced by crystal agitation. In this experiment different size (Micro and Nano) SiO2 crystals are used with commercial diesel fuel in the storage tank and the performance and emission test are conducted. Results of these samples are compared with neat diesel fuel performance.

Evaporation characteristics of ETBE-blended gasoline

To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to global warming, production of gasoline blended with ethyl tert-buthyl ether (ETBE) is increasing annually. The flash point of ETBE is higher than that of gasoline, and blending ETBE into gasoline will change the flash point and the vapor pressure. Therefore, it is expected that the fire hazard caused by ETBE-blended gasoline would differ from that caused by normal gasoline. The aim of this study was to acquire the knowledge required for estimating the fire hazard of ETBE-blended gasoline. Supposing that ETBE-blended gasoline was a two-component mixture of gasoline and ETBE, we developed a prediction model that describes the vapor pressure and flash point of ETBE-blended gasoline in an arbitrary ETBE blending ratio. We chose 8-component hydrocarbon mixture as a model gasoline, and defined the relation between molar mass of gasoline and mass loss fraction. We measured the changes in the vapor pressure and flash point of gasoline by blending ETBE and evaporation, and compared the predicted values with the measured values in order to verify the prediction model. The calculated values of vapor pressures and flash points corresponded well to the measured values. Thus, we confirmed that the change in the evaporation characteristics of ETBE-blended gasoline by evaporation could be predicted by the proposed model. Furthermore, the vapor pressure constants of ETBE-blended gasoline were obtained by the model, and then the distillation curves were developed.

ECO-TWINGINE

ECO-TWINGINE could be the solution to the problem of rising price of fossil fuels, their depletion and the harm caused to the environment. The rising demand for more fuel efficient and green automobiles has forced the think tanks all over the world to contrive an alternate source of energy. Water is used as the alternate source of energy here; however gasoline is used for the initiation of the process. We intend to make the normal gasoline powered car more efficient, green and cheap in the long run.

Experimental Study on Comparison of Flame Propagation Velocity for the Performance Improvement of Natural Gas Engine

Natural gas possesses several characteristics that make it desirable as an engine fuel; 1)lower production cost, 2)abundant commodity and 3)cleaner energy source than gasoline. Due to the physics characteristics of natural gas, the volumetric efficiency and flame speed of a natural gas engine are lower than those of a gasoline engine, which results in a power loss of <TEX>$10-20{\%}$</TEX> when compared to a normal gasoline engine. This paper describes the results of a research to improve the performance of a natural gas engine through the modification and controls of compression ratio, air/fuel ratio, spark advance and supercharging and method of measuring flame propagation velocity. It emphasizes how to improve the power characteristics of a natural gas engine. Combustion characteristics are also studied using an ion probe. The ion probe is applied to measure flame speed of gasoline and methane fuels to confirm the performance improvement of natural gas engine combustion characteristics.

Experimental Study of a Hydrogen-Fueled Engine

The Laboratory of Transport Technology (Ghent University) converted a GM/Crusader V-8 engine for hydrogen use. The engine is intended for the propulsion of a midsize hydrogen city bus for public demonstration. For a complete control of the combustion process and to increase the resistance to backfire (explosion of the air–fuel mixture in the intake manifold), a sequential timed multipoint injection of hydrogen and an electronic management system is chosen. The results as a function of the engine parameters (ignition timing, injection timing and duration, injection pressure) are given. Special focus is given to topics related to the use of hydrogen as a fuel: ignition characteristics (importance of electrode distance), quality of the lubricating oil (crankcase gases with high contents of hydrogen), oxygen sensors (very lean operating conditions), and noise reduction (configuration and length of intake pipes). The advantages and disadvantages of a power regulation only by the air-to-fuel ratio (as for diesel engines) against a throttle regulation (normal gasoline or gas regulation) are examined. Finally, the goals of the development of the engine are reached: power output of 90 kW, torque of 300 Nm, extremely low emission levels, and backfire-safe operation.

99/02717 Spark-ignition engine performance with simulated biogas — a comparison with gasoline and natural gas

A single-cylinder variable-compression ratio spark-ignition engine was used to compare the performance and emissions for gasoline and natural gas with values for simulated biogas containing different proportions of carbon dioxide. The gaseous fuels had leaner misfire limits than the gasoline. Brake power was lower even at a higher compression ratio compared with gasoline operation at the normal value. Brake thermal efficiency was less than with gasoline at the same compression ratio and decreased with increasing carbon dioxide proportion. At the higher compression ratio and moderate speeds, the brake thermal efficiency for all the gaseous fuels was higher than for the baseline gasoline. The gaseous fuels gave less total unburnt hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide. Higher nitrogen oxide emissions were produced with natural gas at the higher compression ratio than with normal gasoline operation. The presence of carbon dioxide in the biogas, however, counteracted this effect and nitrogen oxides levels were lowest for these fuels.

Performance studies with biomass-derived high-octane fuel additives in a two-stroke spark-ignition engine

The intensive search for alternative fuels for spark-ignition engines has focused attention on fuels which can be derived from biomass. In this regard, orange oil and eucalyptus oil are found to be potential candidates for spark-ignition engines. Their properties are similar to gasoline in nature and they are miscible with gasoline without any phase separation. They can be used in spark-ignition engines with little engine modification as a blend with gasoline fuel. The high octane value of these fuels can enhance the octane value of the fuel when it is blended with low-octane gasoline. Hence, the knock-limited compression ratio (CR) can be further increased when these fuels are blended with gasoline. In the present work, 20% by volume of orange oil and eucalyptus oil were blended separately with gasoline and the performance, combustion and exhaust emission characteristics were evaluated at two different compression ratios. Test results indicate that the performance of fuel blends was much better than the gasoline fuel, in particular at the higher compression ratio. Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide emission levels in the engine exhaust were considerably reduced with the fuel blends at both the compression ratios tested. Between the two fuel blends tested, eucalyptus oil blend provides better performance than the orange oil blend. The maximum percentage improvement in the brake thermal efficiency obtained with eucalyptus oil blend is about 20.5% at 2 kW, 3000 r.p.m. and CR 9 over the normal gasoline engine.

In situ Biorestoration of an Oil Contaminated Subsoil

The feasibility of in-situ biorestoration of contaminated subsoils is being investigated by RIVM in co-operation with TNO. This project is aimed at optimizing the treatment of deeper layers of contaminated soil by enhancing microbial activity. The project consists of a literature study, research at laboratory-scale, detailed research of the selected experimental site and the actual clean-up of the contaminated site. In the literature study it was concluded that in-situ biological treatment offers reasonable prospects, concerning the technical aspects and the final results, but there were still questions about the efficiency of the clean-up of the soil itself. The selected site is a gasoline station, where the soil has been contaminated with gasoline, caused by a leaking tank. At least 30 m of normal gasoline have leaked and about 600 m3 of soil have been contaminated. Several monitoring wells have been placed to get an impression of the quantity and composition of the contamination. The soil consists of medium fine sand, without organic material and contains some clay-loam layers. The groundwater level is at about 2.5 m below the surface. Concentrations of the oil components in the soil(mainly between 1,000 and 5,000 mg/kg) as well as in the groundwater exceed the Dutch reference values which demand treatment of the site. In leaching experiments it was found that only very small quantities of the gasoline can be leached from the soil. Clean-up by percolation only would take at least 4 years. The leached quantity increased with the percolation rate, but was nearly independent of the gasoline concentration. The mobility could not be promoted by the addition of detergents. Numerous laboratory biodegradation experiments have been carried out in order to determine the degradation capacity of the contaminated soil, and to determine to what extent this biodegradation could be stimulated. The conlusions of these experiments are:In the soil there is low microbial activity and also the rate of degradation of the oil is low and constant in time. From mass balance studies it was determined that the degradation rate is determined by the availability of the oil components, which is a function of the dissoiution rate into the water and the volatilization. Availability turns out to be one of the determining aspects for this type of restoration technique.The degradation activity is most enhanced by the addition of seeding material from a landfarm, but is practically not feasible because of the limited mobility of microorganisms in soil.The presence of water and buffering at a neutral pH contribute to an optimal biodegradation rate.Some N and P additions are necessary. However, the C-N-P ratio had a very small influence on the degradation. A C-N-P ratio of 100-10-10 is recommended.As alternative oxygen source, hydrogen peroxide seems suitable, but the use of high concentrations of nitrate led to a decreased degradation.Detergents applied to increase the availability of the oil components did not stimulate the degradation. The degradation rate under stimulated conditions varied between 5 and 40 (mean 10) mg C/kg/day in comparison with an autonomous degradation rate of 3-4 mg C/kg/day. A stimulated clean-up duration of 1.5 years is expected. Column experiments are in progress now and are used to confirm the findings of the laboratory tests. They should also give answers about oxygen limitation and alternative oxygen sources. First examples of the hydrological set-up (infiltration by drains and withdrawal by wells, dimensioned by the desired degradation rate) confirm the feasibility of this project. It is expected that the actual clean-up operation will start in the fall of this year. In-situ treatment offers a very good alternative with advantages over excavation combined with various treatment techniques.

Action of accelerators and inhibitors upon the oxidation of liquid hydrocarbons

An apparatus has been devised and a method described for determining the effect of various inhibitors and accelerators of knock upon the slow oxidation of hydrocarbon fuels. Data are given to show the effect of various substances upon the slow oxidation of n -heptane and its normal oxygen derivatives, gasoline, and kerosene. A surprising similarity is shown between the action of lead tetraethyl and various compounds of sodium and potassium, and also a difference in the action of lead tetraethyl and these compounds of sodium and potassium upon the oxidation of hydrocarbons, in the gas or liquid phases.

High Octane Fuels

THE original work of Mr. H. R. Ricardo in 1919 showed some of the technical advantages of using fuels of high anti‐knock value. Since this time the development of aero‐engines in respect of power output and economy has depended more upon the fuels available than upon any other factor. Considerable progress has been made in the direction of improving the anti‐knock value of petroleum spirits, which constitute the bulk of the fuel used in aviation throughout the world. However, until very recently this progress had not been very rapid, and as Mr. Ricardo showed, far greater improvements in anti‐knock value could be achieved by the use of other fuels such as benzol, toluol and alcohol. On the octane scale benzol and toluol have a blending value by the C.F.R. motor method of about 90 in concentrations up to 50 per cent; that of alcohol being about 105. This is shown in Fig. 1, from which it will be observed that two curves are given for ethyl alcohol, one being obtained under motor method conditions (mixture temperature 149 deg. C.) and the other with the same heat input as required for a normal aviation gasoline. By this means the additional advantage of the higher latent heat of the alcohol blends is shown. Neither benzol, toluol nor alcohol is produced in very large quantities, and moreover, in times of national emergency they are likely to be required for purposes other than for use as aviation fuels.