Normal Adult Dogs Research Articles

Comparison of Canine Forelimb Kinematic Joint Angles Collected with 2D and 3D Models.

The aim of this study was to compare a Joint Coordinate System (JCS) three-dimensional (3D) kinematic model of the canine forelimb with more widely used linear (LIN) and segmental (SEG) 2D models. It was an in vivo biomechanical study. Normal adult mixed breed dogs were used in this study (n = 6). Nineteen retroreflective markers were applied to the skin of dogs' right forelimbs. Dogs were trotted and walked through the calibrated testing space. The first five good trials were used to generate sagittal plane (flexion and extension angle) waveforms from 3 different models (JCS, LIN and SEG) for the shoulder, elbow and carpal joints. The JCS model also generated transverse and frontal plane joint angular data (internal/external and abduction/adduction angles) for all three joints. Minimum, maximum and total angular displacement was calculated for each joint. Comparison of sagittal plane waveforms was performed before and after waveform alignment using statistical parametric mapping. Each model produced similar sagittal plane waveforms, though the LIN model had a greater vertical shift along the y-axis for the shoulder and elbow. Before waveform alignment, differences were revealed between the LIN model when compared to JCS or SEG model at a trot. No differences were revealed at a walk. After waveform alignment, no differences were revealed between models at a walk or trot. There were no differences in angular displacement measurements between models before or after waveform alignment at a walk or trot. The 3D JCS model reported in this study produced sagittal plane waveforms comparable to conventional 2D models while also providing joint specific information from other planes of motion.

Application of a Joint Coordinate System Kinematic Model to the Canine Thoracic Limb.

The aim of this study was to apply a three-dimensional kinematic model to the canine thoracic limb using a joint coordinate system. Six clinically normal adult mixed-breed dogs. Dogs had 19 retroreflective markers affixed to the skin of the right forelimb. Twelve infrared cameras were arranged in a circle around the testing space, recording the locations of the markers as dogs walked and trotted through the testing space. Five trials were used of both walks and trots at velocities 0.9 to 1.2 m/s and 1.7 to 2.1 m/s respectively. Raw marker location data were used to generate a joint coordinate system, and a six degrees of freedom model of the canine forelimb was created. Three-dimensional kinematic angles were collected for the shoulder, elbow and carpal joints. Sagittal, transverse and frontal plane kinematics joint angles were generated by use of a joint coordinate system. Range of motion was calculated for each joint in all three planes. This minimally invasive joint coordinate system model can be used in both clinical and research settings to determine changes in range of motion of the shoulder, elbow or carpus in the canine forelimb in three dimensions.

Differences in the composition and predicted functions of the intestinal microbiome of obese and normal weight adult dogs.

Obesity is a multifactorial nutritional disorder highly prevalent in dogs, observed in developed and developing countries. It is estimated that over 40% of the canine population suffers from obesity, which manifests in an increased risk of chronic osteoarticular, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases. The intestinal microbiome of obese animals shows increases in the abundance of certain members capable of extracting energy from complex polysaccharides. The objective of this study was to compare the composition and predicted function of the intestinal microbiome of Chilean obese and normal weight adult dogs. Twenty clinically healthy dogs were classified according to their body condition score (BCS) as obese (n = 10) or normal weight (n = 10). DNA was extracted from stool samples, followed by next-generation sequencing of the 16S rRNA V3–V4 region and bioinformatics analysis targeting microbiome composition and function. Significant differences were observed between these groups at the phylum level, with anincrease in Firmicutes and a decrease in Bacteroidetes in obese dogs. Microbiome compositions of these animals correlated with their BCS, and obese dogs showed enrichment in pathways related to transport, chemotaxis, and flagellar assembly. These results highlight the differences in the gut microbiome between normal weight and obese dogs and prompt further research to improve animal health by modulating the gut microbiome.

Non-invasive optical coherence tomography angiography: A comparison with fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography in normal adult dogs and cats.

While the retinal vasculature can be assessed by simple funduscopy, a more detailed assessment can be performed by conventional angiography using dyes such as fluorescein or indocyanine green. The development of optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) allows a non-invasive detailed examination of posterior segment vasculature. The purpose of this prospective study was to compare imaging of posterior segment vasculature in normal dogs and cats using OCT-A, fluorescein angiography (FA), and indocyanine green angiography (ICGA). Eight adult funduscopically normal dogs and 13 funduscopically normal cats were included in the study. Retinal vasculature was assessed by OCT-A followed by ICGA then FA. Regular fundus imaging was also performed. High-resolution images of the different vascular layers within the retina and choroid could be acquired using OCT-A in both dogs and cats. The technique provided more detail than obtained with FA/ICGA. However, artifacts/errors can occur during OCT-A image acquisition/analysis/interpretation and must be considered. Furthermore, OCT-A only allows for a limited field of view compared to FA/ICGA. Optical coherence tomography angiography is a new non-invasive posterior segment imaging technique that is complementary to traditional dye-based angiographic techniques. Detailed imaging of the dog and cat posterior segment can be achieved under general anesthesia. OCT-A provides additional detail of the vasculature and can clearly demonstrate the anatomical depth of the imaged vessels. There are, however, some limitations to this new technique that may be overcome by future technological advances.

Characterization of the Canine Retinal Vasculature With Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography: Comparisons With Histology and Fluorescein Angiography.

Purpose: To present a methodology for quantification of the canine retinal vasculature imaged by optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) and validate this approach by comparison with fluorescein angiography (FA) and confocal imaging of retinal wholemounts labelled by immunohistochemistry (IHC).Methods: Six normal adult dogs underwent retinal OCTA imaging in both eyes. The images extracted from the different microvascular plexuses at eight retinal locations spanning the central and mid-peripheral fundus were analyzed using the AngioTool software. FA was performed in one eye and was compared to the OCTA images. Six eyes from three dogs were processed by IHC to examine the retinal vasculature.Results: A total of four retinal plexuses were identified by OCTA in the canine retina, and their density and topographical pattern varied with eccentricity. OCTA offered improved resolution over FA with the advantage of allowing imaging of the individual plexuses. Detection by OCTA of small vessels within the deep capillary plexus was possible and approached the level of resolution achieved with ex vivo imaging of the retinal vasculature by confocal microscopy/IHC. The plexuses herein described are analogous to human retinal vasculature.Conclusion: OCTA can be used to image and quantify non-invasively the vascular retinal networks of the canine retina. We provide normative data in eight different retinal locations that can be imaged non-invasively with this technology. This could support analysis of retinal vascular changes associated with disease and following therapeutic intervention.

Evaluation of a continuous locking novel epitendinous suture pattern with and without a core locking-loop suture on the biomechanical properties of tenorrhaphy constructs in an ex vivo model of canine superficial digital flexor tendon laceration.

To evaluate the effect of a continuous locking novel epitendinous suture (nES) pattern with and without a core locking-loop (LL) suture on the biomechanical properties of ex vivo canine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) tenorrhaphy constructs. 54 cadaveric forelimb SDFTs from 27 musculoskeletally normal adult dogs. Tendons were assigned to 3 groups (18 SDFTs/group): sharply transected and repaired with a core LL suture alone (group 1), an nES pattern alone (group 2), or a combination of a core LL suture and nES pattern (group 3). All constructs underwent a single load-to-failure test. Yield, peak, and failure loads; gap formation incidence; and mode of failure were compared among the 3 groups. Mean yield, peak, and failure loads differed significantly among the 3 groups and were greatest for group 3 and lowest for group 1. Mean yield, peak, and failure loads for group 3 constructs were greater than those for group 1 constructs by 50%, 47%, and 44%, respectively. None of the group 3 constructs developed 3-mm gaps. The most common mode of failure was suture pulling through the tendon for groups 1 (12/18) and 2 (12/18) and suture breakage for group 3 (13/18). Results suggested augmentation of a core LL suture with an nES pattern significantly increased the strength of and prevented 3-mm gap formation at the tenorrhaphy site in ex vivo canine SDFTs. In vivo studies are necessary to assess the effectiveness and practicality of the nES pattern for SDFT repair in dogs.

ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC VARIABLES IN THE AFRICAN PAINTED DOG (LYCAON PICTUS).

The aim of this study was to screen for cardiac disease and report normal echocardiographic variables from a managed population of the African painted dog (Lycaon pictus; APD). The study included six male adult APDs under managed care with no evidence of significant structural cardiac disease. Echocardiography was performed with APD maintained under anesthesia with a combination of midazolam, butorphanol, and inhaled isoflurane. All animals underwent a full physical examination and two-dimensional (2D), M-mode, and Doppler echocardiography using standard views. Left ventricular volumes were calculated using the Simpson's method of discs. Medians with ranges were reported for the echocardiographic variables. No valvular structural abnormalities were noted. Trace mitral regurgitation was documented in five of six APD, trace tricuspid regurgitation in three of six, and mild pulmonic regurgitation in all APD. No aortic regurgitation was noted. Standard M-mode measurements fell within the normal ranges for allometrically scaled M-mode cardiac measurements for normal adult domestic dogs (Canis familiaris). Two-dimensional measurements were comparable with that of domestic dogs with similar body weight. The study demonstrates a similarity in cardiac size and function compared with normal adult domestic dogs and provides baseline echocardiographic variables for investigation of cardiac health in other populations of APDs in the future.

Epidemiology of canine distemper in Makurdi, Nigeria

Canine distemper (CD), a major disease of dogs all over the world, hitherto controlled by extensive vaccination of dogs around the world, appears to be persisting and even re-emerging in many parts of the world. It is thought that wild life reservoir hosts contribute to the emergence of CD, but in areas of the world with minimal wildlife contact with domestic dogs, it is thought that cyclical infection between clinically normal dogs and susceptible neonatal animals may be responsible for maintaining the canine distemper virus (CDV) in the canine population. We decided to examine clinically normal dogs in the Makurdi metropolis for evidence of infection with CDV, to determine if such dogs may act as sources of persistence of the CDV in the canine population. We tested 70 unvaccinated, clinically normal dogs for evidence of distemper virus using a rapid CDV antigen (Ag) chromatographic assay test kit designed for the qualitative detection of canine distemper virus antigens in urine, conjunctiva, serum or plasma. We found six (6 or 8.6%) of the 70 dogs positive for distemper antigen; three (3) of the dogs were under one (1) year of age, whereas three were 5 years or more. We conclude that the CDV is circulating among clinically normal dogs in Makurdi, and that a cyclical infection between infected but clinically normal adult dogs and puppies may be responsible for maintaining the disease in the canine population in Makurdi. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the role of vaccination and the possibilities of emergence of new antigenic strains of CDV in the epidemiology of CD in the Makurdi area. Keywords: Canine Distemper, Vaccination, Laboratory diagnosis, maintenance in population, Makurdi, Nigeria

Short-term effects of arthrotomy with and without infrapatellar fat pad resection on the normal canine stifle.

To investigate the short-term effects of infrapatellar fat pad (IFP) resection in normal dogs. Experimental in vivo study. Five normal adult female beagle dogs. The IFP was resected via arthrotomy in the left stifle joint (experimental side) while the right stifle underwent arthrotomy alone (sham side). An orthopedic examination was performed every week for 4 weeks and synovial fluid was analyzed before and 4 weeks after the procedure. The ratio of the length of the patellar ligament to the patellar length (L:P) was calculated on a lateral radiograph of the stifle before, 2 and 4 weeks after the procedure. Patellar depth (PD) and the contact area (CA) between the femur and patella were calculated from computed tomographic images taken at 3 different stifle angles (extended, flexed, hyperflexed) before, immediately after, and 4 weeks following the procedure. The dogs were euthanatized 4 weeks after the procedure for macroscopic and microscopic evaluation of the patellofemoral joint. No difference was found between treatment groups throughout the study. No evidence of postoperative osteoarthritis was detected in any of the dogs. Orthopedic examinations, radiographs, and synovial fluid analyses remained within normal limits. Most PD, but not CA measurements, increased with time in both joints and at all stifle angles. Excision of the IFP subsequent to medial arthrotomy did not result in any measurable changes in the canine patellofemoral joint when compared with medial arthrotomy alone after 4 weeks of follow-up.

Furosemide continuous rate infusion diluted with 5% dextrose in water or hypertonic saline in normal adult dogs: a pilot study

ObjectiveThe goal of this study was to investigate the short-term safety and diuretic efficacy of furosemide constant rate infusion (CRI) diluted with 5% dextrose in water (D5W) compared to dilution with 2.4% hypertonic saline in healthy dogs. AnimalsSix healthy dogs. MethodsDogs were studied in a randomized, blinded, crossover manner. Furosemide 3.3mg/kg was diluted to 2.2mg/mL with either 1.5mL/kg D5W for the DEX method or with 1.0mL/kg D5W and 0.5mL/kg of 7.2% hypertonic saline for the H-SAL method. After a 0.66mg/kg furosemide IV bolus, the infusion rate was 0.3 mL/kg/hr for 5 h such that both methods delivered 0.66 mg/kg/hr (total 3.3mg/kg) furosemide in equal volume for the study duration. Urine output, water intake, central venous pressure (CVP), physical parameters, furosemide concentrations, blood and urine electrolytes, and urine aldosterone to creatinine ratio (UAldo:C) were evaluated. ResultsMeasured variables were not different between methods but showed changes over time consistent with diuresis. Mean CVP decreased over time similarly for both methods. Plasma furosemide and urine concentrations were stable and not different between methods. Both furosemide CRI methods showed an increase in the UAldo:C, however, the rise was greater for DEX than for H-SAL. ConclusionsDiuresis was similar for both furosemide CRI methods; however, the H-SAL method induced less renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation than the DEX method. The absence of intravascular volume expansion based on CVP suggests that dilution of a furosemide CRI with 2.4% hypertonic saline may be well tolerated in heart failure.

Operative Techniques and Preliminary Outcomes Following Percutaneous Endoscopic Thoracolumbar Pediculectomy in Dogs.

To examine the technical feasibility of percutaneous endoscopic pediculectomy using a lateral approach and to evaluate its use for decompression and examination of the thoracic and lumbar spinal canals in small dogs. Experimental study. Clinically normal adult dogs (n=10). After optimizing the technique in cadavers, percutaneous endoscopic pediculectomy was performed using a lateral approach to the thoracic (T12) or lumbar (L2) vertebrae in 5 dogs each. Using fluoroscopic guidance, a K-wire, dilator, and (cannula) working sleeve were placed. A window for visualizing the spinal cord and floor of the spinal canal was created using a specialized drill, rongeurs, trephine, and elevator. Gait and neurologic status were monitored postoperatively, and computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) performed. All procedures were completed successfully (T12, 45 ± 13 minutes; L2, 59 ± 14 minutes) with clear observation of the spinal cord and floor of the spinal canal. Normal ambulation was maintained in 9 dogs. One dog in the L2 group had ipsilateral hind limb weakness that resolved within 4 days. One dog in the L2 group suffered a fracture of the accessory process. One dog each in the T12 and L2 groups had hyperintense lesions on T2-weighted MRI images, suspicious of focal edema, which reduced at 4 weeks after initial examination, possibly reflecting gliosis. Pediculectomy using a percutaneous endoscopic thoracolumbar lateral approach is feasible, provides a good view of the spinal canal, and may be an alternative for treatment of disk disease in dogs.

Identification of histamine receptors in the canine gastrointestinal tract

The important role of histamine in chronic gastrointestinal diseases has been increasingly recognized over the last two decades in human medicine. Histamine is released following mast cell activation and exerts its action through binding to four different histamine receptors (H1, H2, H3, and H4). Histamine receptors are dispersed throughout the body, and each different receptor mediates a unique response. Documentation of the presence and type of histamine receptors in the differing sections of the canine gastrointestinal tract will provide additional research opportunities to further explore the role of histamine and its receptors in chronic canine enteropathies, as well as potential therapeutic options.Full thickness gastric, duodenal, jejunal, ileal, and colonic biopsies were obtained from 6 clinically normal adult dogs immediately after humane euthanasia. Commercially available histamine receptor antibodies predicted to react with canine tissues were applied to paraffin-embedded tissue sections using standard immunohistochemistry techniques to identify different histamine receptors. Staining intensity was graded from negative to strong, and the specificity of each antibody was evaluated with western blot.The presence and distribution of histamine receptors varied by anatomic site and histologic level within sections of the canine gastrointestinal tract. All 4 histamine receptors were readily identified, although the distribution of H4 receptors was decreased in comparison to the other histamine receptors. The distribution of the various histamine receptors was similar to that seen in the normal human gastrointestinal tract. H1 receptors were located in the stomach, lymphoid tissue of the ileum and colon, and the smooth muscle and ganglia of all sections. H2 receptors were located in all sections of the gastrointestinal tract, with greatest staining intensity in the gastric mucosa. H3 receptors were located in the stomach and colonic mucosa, smooth muscle and ganglia of all sections, and ileal and colonic lymphoid tissue. H4 receptors were located in the ganglia and smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as the gastric and colonic mucosal and ileal lymphoid tissue.Western blot demonstrated both specific and non-specific staining with the H1 and H3 receptor antibody, but good specificity with the H4 receptor antibody. The H2 receptor antibody was not compatible with western blot techniques, despite excellent immunohistochemical specificity and consistency.Further studies to compare the density and distribution of the various histamine receptors in dogs with gastrointestinal disease are warranted.

A Comparative Study of the Dentition and Temporomandibular Joint Anatomy and Histology Adult Dogs

Purpose: To describe and evaluate normal adult dog dentition and temporomandibular joint anatomically and histologically in comparison to humans. Method: Five adult dogs (6-12 months old) were used in this study. The following anatomical structures were histologically evaluated in a qualitative fashion: Teeth and related bony structures mandible, mandibular condyle, disc, Zygomatic arch, temporal bone, glenoid fossa, retrodiscal tissue and synovia. The macroscopical and microscopic study of the human TMJ was based on the current literature. Results: Dogs have three Incisors, one canine, four premolars, and 2 molars in the upper and 3 molars in the lower jaw. The TMJ is surrounded by a thin fibrous tissue capsule, and a synovial lining. The mandibular angle has a prominent shape. The glenoid fossa is flat, with extended mediolaterally with retroarticular process. Histologically, the TMJ is composed of different tissues that comprise the mandibular head, mandibular fossa and fibrocartilaginous disc. A layer of fibrous tissue covers the articulating cortical condyle and temporal bone followed by a layer of hyaline cartilage. Conclusion: Morphologically and numerically dog's teeth are different from humans. Morphologically and histologically, the articular structure of dogs is, on the whole, similar to that of humans. In these animals there is no articular eminence, but they have a retroarticular process.

Expression of fibroblast growth factor 23 by canine soft tissue sarcomas.

Tumour-induced osteomalacia (TIO) is a rare paraneoplastic syndrome of humans. Some mesenchymal tumours (often resembling haemangiopericytomas) express molecules that normally regulate phosphorus metabolism; most frequently, fibroblast growth factor 23. Patients develop renal phosphate wasting and inappropriately low serum concentrations of 1, 25 (OH)2 vitamin D3 , leading to osteomalacia. Surgical removal of the tumour is curative. The authors examined expression of canine fibroblast growth factor 23 in 49 soft tissue sarcomas, and control tissues from normal adult dogs. RNA extracted from bone or formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues was analysed by end point and quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Fibroblast growth factor 23 expression was detected in bone, lung, kidney, lymph node and thymus. Fifteen of 49 sarcomas (31%) expressed fibroblast growth factor 23, three of these had high relative expression and some features resembling phosphatonin-expressing mesenchymal tumours of humans. Further work is required to determine whether TIO may occur in dogs.

A Microscopic Study of the Aortic Branches Structure in the Adult Male Dog

The aim of the present study was to determine the structural changes between elastic and muscular artery in branches (ciliac artery, mesenteric artery, renal artery) of aorta. Five normal adult male dogs were studied and the specimens were processed in the routine way for light microscopy. It was established that the proximal part of the aortic branches contains parallel and fenestrated elastic fibers. These fibers decrease and become fragmented in the middle part of branches. In the distal part, the rows of smooth muscle cells are grater in number and the elastic fibers appear to be fragmented. Therefore the proximal part of branches shows a structure intermediate between those of elastic and muscular arteries. With coming toward to the distal part of the branches the elastic fibers reduce and these changes occur gradually.

Comparison of overground and treadmill-based gaits of dogs

To compare overground and treadmill-based gaits of dogs. 5 clinically normal adult mixed-breed dogs. To obtain dynamic gait data, 30 retroreflective markers were affixed bilaterally to specific regions of the hind limbs and pelvis of each dog. For each dog, 3-D joint motion data (sagittal [flexion and extension], transverse [internal and external rotation], and frontal [abduction and adduction] planes of motion) for the hip, femorotibial, and tarsal joints were acquired during walking and trotting through a calibrated testing space overground or on a treadmill. Comparison of data was performed via generalized indicator function analysis and Fourier analysis. Both overground and treadmill-based gaits produced similar waveforms in all planes of motion. Fourier analysis revealed no difference between overground and treadmill-based gaits in the sagittal plane of motion; however, small differences were detected between overground and treadmill-based gaits in the other 2 planes of motion. Additionally, femorotibial joint motion during walking did not differ among planes of motion. Generalized indicator function analysis was able to detect differences between overground and treadmill-based gait waveforms in all planes of motion for all joints during walking and trotting. In dogs, overground and treadmill-based gaits produced similar waveform shapes. Of the 3 planes of motion evaluated, only sagittal plane kinematic gait data were unaffected by mode of ambulation as determined via Fourier analysis. Sagittal kinematic gait data collected from dogs during overground or treadmill-based ambulation were comparable. However, analysis methods may affect data comparisons.

Assessment of cord dorsum potentials from caudal nerves in anesthetized clinically normal adult dogs without or during neuromuscular blockade

To assess the feasibility of measuring cord dorsum potentials (CDPs) in anesthetized clinically normal dogs after caudal nerve stimulation, determine the intervertebral site of maximum amplitude and best waveform of the CDP, and evaluate the effects of neuromuscular blockade. 8 male and 4 female dogs (age, 1 to 5 years). Dogs were anesthetized, and CDPs were recorded via needles placed on the dorsal lamina at intervertebral spaces L1-2 through L7-S1. Caudal nerves were stimulated with monopolar electrodes inserted laterally to the level of the caudal vertebrae. Dogs were tested without and during neuromuscular blockade induced with atracurium besylate. The CDP latency and amplitude were determined from the largest amplitude tracings. CDPs were recorded in 11 of 12 dogs without neuromuscular blockade and in all dogs during neuromuscular blockade. The CDP was largest and most isolated at the L4-5 intervertebral space (3 dogs) or the L5-6 intervertebral space (9 dogs); this site corresponded to the segment of insertion of the first caudal nerve. Onset latencies ranged from 2.0 to 4.7 milliseconds, and there was no effect of neuromuscular blockade on latencies. Amplitudes of the CDPs were highly variable for both experimental conditions. CDPs were recorded from all dogs tested in the study; neuromuscular blockade was not critical for successful CDP recording but reduced muscle artifact. This technique may be useful as a tool to assess the caudal nerve roots in dogs suspected of having compressive lumbosacral disease or myelopathies affecting the lumbar intumescence.

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

Veterinary Radiology & UltrasoundVolume 54, Issue 2 p. 202-202 Letter to the Editor LETTER TO THE EDITOR Robert O'Brien, Robert O'Brien College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Champagne, IL, 61801Search for more papers by this author Robert O'Brien, Robert O'Brien College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Champagne, IL, 61801Search for more papers by this author First published: 30 January 2013 https://doi.org/10.1111/vru.12013Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume54, Issue2March/April 2013Pages 202-202 RelatedInformation

Effects of oral administration of diphenhydramine on pupil diameter, intraocular pressure, tear production, tear film quality, conjunctival goblet cell density, and corneal sensitivity of clinically normal adult dogs

To evaluate the effects of oral administration of diphenhydramine on pupil diameter, intraocular pressure (IOP), tear production, tear film quality, corneal sensitivity, and conjunctival goblet cell density (GCD) in clinically normal adult dogs. 12 healthy adult dogs. All dogs received diphenhydramine (2.2 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h) for 21 days. Conjunctival biopsy samples were obtained immediately before (day 1) and after (day 21) treatment with diphenhydramine and conjunctival GCDs were determined. Gross ophthalmic examinations and fluorescein staining of corneas were performed, and pupil diameter, corneal sensitivity, IOP, tear production, and tear film breakup time were determined prior to administration of diphenhydramine on days 1 through 5 and on day 21; pupil diameter and IOP measurements were repeated on each of those days at 20 and 40 minutes and 1, 3, 6, and 8 hours after administration of diphenhydramine. Data were analyzed to detect differences among values for dogs. Clinically important increases in pupil diameter were not detected after administration of diphenhydramine to dogs. Day 1 corneal sensitivity and tear film breakup time for dogs were significantly higher than day 21 values for those variables. Results of this study suggested that oral administration of diphenhydramine to healthy adult dogs was not likely to acutely induce glaucoma or keratoconjunctivitis sicca. However, effects of diphenhydramine in dogs with keratoconjunctivitis sicca or primary glaucoma or dogs genetically predisposed to development of those conditions were not determined. Administration of diphenhydramine to dogs decreased corneal sensitivity and tear film breakup time, although these effects were not clinically important.

Long‐Term Functional Outcome of Tibial Plateau Leveling Osteotomy Versus Extracapsular Repair in a Heterogeneous Population of Dogs

To compare the long-term outcome of tibial plateau leveling osteotomy (TPLO) and extracapsular repair (ECR) for treatment of a ruptured cranial cruciate ligament (RCCL). Prospective clinical trial. Normal adult dogs (control, n = 79); dogs with unilateral CCL disease (n = 38). Dogs had TPLO (n = 15) or ECR (n = 23) for treatment of RCCL. Force plate gait analysis was performed for the control group at one time point and for treatment groups at serial points: preoperatively, 2 weeks, 8 weeks, 6 and 12 months postoperatively. Symmetry indices (SIs) were calculated between operated and unoperated pelvic limb for ground reaction forces (GRFs), including peak vertical force (PVF), contact time (CT), and vertical impulse (VI). GRFs of the treatment groups and control group were compared using a general linear model and Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. At 8 weeks, for PVF and VI, the TPLO group had more symmetric limb loading than the ECR group at the walk and trot. SIs of the TPLO group were not different from the control group by 6 months to 1 year postoperatively. SIs for the ECR group were less symmetrical than the control group at all time periods. Using survival analysis, median time to normal function was no different at the walk between groups, but was shorter for the TPLO group for VI and PVF. Dogs achieved normal limb loading faster after TPLO than ECR. TPLO resulted in operated limb function that was indistinguishable from the control population by 1 year postoperatively.