Nonyl Acridine Orange Research Articles

Cyclophosphamide induces ovarian granulosa cell ferroptosis via a mechanism associated with HO-1 and ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction

Abnormal granulosa cell (GC) death contributes to cyclophosphamide (CTX) induced primary ovarian insufficiency (POI). To investigate the contribution of GCs to POI, gene profiles of GCs exposed to CTX were assessed using RNA-Seq and bioinformatics analysis. The results showed the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were enriched in the ferroptosis-related pathway, which is correlated with upregulated heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and downregulated glutathione peroxidase-4 (GPX4). Using CTX-induced cell culture (COV434 and KGN cells), the levels of iron, reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxide, mitochondrial superoxide, mitochondrial morphology and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were detected by DCFDA, MitoSOX, C11-BODIPY, MitoTracker, Nonylacridine Orange (NAO), JC-1 and transmission electron microscopy respectively. The results showed iron overload and disrupted ROS, including cytoROS, mtROS and lipROS homeostasis, were associated with upregulation of HO-1 and could induce ferroptosis via mitochondrial dysfunction in CTX-induced GCs. Moreover, HO-1 inhibition could suppress ferroptosis induced GPX4 depletion. This implies a role for ROS in CTX-induced ferroptosis and highlights the effect of HO-1 modulators in improving CTX-induced ovarian damage, which may provide a theoretical basis for preventing or restoring GC and ovarian function in patients with POI.

Nonyl Acridine Orange as a Prospective Photocatalyst in Chalcogenylation of Coumarins and Quinolinones.

A mild and efficient method for preparation of 3-sulfenyl and 3-selenyl coumarins and quinolinones mediated by artificial light or sunlight is presented. The elaborated protocol highlights the use of nonyl acridine orange as a photocatalyst to generate a sulfenyl radical from thiols that is further trapped by a heterocycle. The utility of the protocol is justified by a diverse scope of thiols, including short cysteine-containing peptides. The same reaction conditions can be applied for preparation of 3-selenyl coumarins and quinolinones. Various protected and unprotected selenocysteine-containing peptides were successfully utilized demonstrating high tolerance for amino acids with sensitive groups (Arg, Lys, Trp, His, and Tyr).

Do Extracellular Vesicles Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Contain Functional Mitochondria?

Extracellular vesicles (EV) derived from stem cells have become an effective complement to the use in cell therapy of stem cells themselves, which has led to an explosion of research into the mechanisms of vesicle formation and their action. There is evidence demonstrating the presence of mitochondrial components in EV, but a definitive conclusion about whether EV contains fully functional mitochondria has not yet been made. In this study, two EV fractions derived from mesenchymal stromal stem cells (MSC) and separated by their size were examined. Flow cytometry revealed the presence of mitochondrial lipid components capable of interacting with mitochondrial dyes MitoTracker Green and 10-nonylacridine orange; however, the EV response to the probe for mitochondrial membrane potential was negative. Detailed analysis revealed components from all mitochondria compartments, including house-keeping mitochondria proteins and DNA as well as energy-related proteins such as membrane-localized proteins of complexes I, IV, and V, and soluble proteins from the Krebs cycle. When assessing the functional activity of mitochondria, high variability in oxygen consumption was noted, which was only partially attributed to mitochondrial respiratory activity. Our findings demonstrate that the EV contain all parts of mitochondria; however, their independent functionality inside EV has not been confirmed, which may be due either to the absence of necessary cofactors and/or the EV formation process and, probably the methodology of obtaining EV.

Imaging Fluorescence Blinking of a Mitochondrial Localization Probe: Cellular Localization Probes Turned into Multifunctional Sensors.

Mitochondrial membranes and their microenvironments directly influence and reflect cellular metabolic states but are difficult to probe on site in live cells. Here, we demonstrate a strategy, showing how the widely used mitochondrial membrane localization fluorophore 10-nonyl acridine orange (NAO) can be transformed into a multifunctional probe of membrane microenvironments by monitoring its blinking kinetics. By transient state (TRAST) studies of NAO in small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs), together with computational simulations, we found that NAO exhibits prominent reversible singlet–triplet state transitions and can act as a light-induced Lewis acid forming a red-emissive doublet radical. The resulting blinking kinetics are highly environment-sensitive, specifically reflecting local membrane oxygen concentrations, redox conditions, membrane charge, fluidity, and lipid compositions. Here, not only cardiolipin concentration but also the cardiolipin acyl chain composition was found to strongly influence the NAO blinking kinetics. The blinking kinetics also reflect hydroxyl ion-dependent transitions to and from the fluorophore doublet radical, closely coupled to the proton-transfer events in the membranes, local pH, and two- and three-dimensional buffering properties on and above the membranes. Following the SUV studies, we show by TRAST imaging that the fluorescence blinking properties of NAO can be imaged in live cells in a spatially resolved manner. Generally, the demonstrated blinking imaging strategy can transform existing fluorophore markers into multiparametric sensors reflecting conditions of large biological relevance, which are difficult to retrieve by other means. This opens additional possibilities for fundamental membrane studies in lipid vesicles and live cells.

Tunable gold nanorod/NAO conjugates for selective drug delivery in mitochondria-targeted cancer therapy

Nonyl acridine orange (NAO) is a lipophilic and positively charged molecule widely used as a mitochondrial fluorescent probe. NAO is cytotoxic at micromolar concentration and might be potentially used as a mitochondria-targeted drug for cancer therapy. However, the use of NAO under in vivo conditions would be compromised by the unspecific interactions with off-target cells and negatively charged proteins present in the bloodstream. To tackle this limitation, we have synthesized NAO analogues carrying an imidazole group for their specific binding to nitrilotriacetic (NTA) functionalized gold nanorods (AuNRs). We demonstrate that AuNRs provide 104 binding sites and a controlled delivery under acidic conditions. Upon incubation with mouse embryonic fibroblasts, the endosomal acidic environment releases the NAO analogues from AuNRs, as visualized through the staining of the mitochondrial network. The addition of the monoclonal antibody Cetuximab to the conjugates enhanced their uptake within lung cancer cells and the conjugates were cytotoxic at subnanomolar concentrations (c50 ≈ 0.06 nM). Moreover, the specific interactions of Cetuximab with the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) provided a specific targeting of EGFR-expressing lung cancer cells. After intravenous administration in patient-derived xenografts (PDX) mouse models, the conjugates reduced the progression of EGFR-positive tumors. Overall, the NAO-AuNRs provide a promising strategy to realize membrane mitochondria-targeted conjugates for lung cancer therapy.

Mitochondrial Function in Modulating Human Granulosa Cell Steroidogenesis and Female Fertility.

Ovarian follicle steroidogenesis associated with embryo quality results in a successful pregnancy. Each follicle consists of an oocyte surrounded by granulosa cells, which secrete several steroid and peptide hormones. Follicles harvested from women who conceived after assisted reproductive therapy (ART) had significantly higher estradiol levels in follicular fluids than the follicles from women who failed to conceive after ART. The higher follicular estradiol levels correlate well with successful fertilization following ART. Mitochondria are the central sites for steroid hormone biosynthesis. The first and rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of steroid hormones occurs in the mitochondria of granulosa cells. In the present study, we hypothesized that the mitochondria in granulosa cells are critical for maintaining oocyte quality and fertility capacity. This study aims to clarify the relationship between mitochondrial function and granulosa cell steroidogenesis, and the relationship between hormone levels and fertility capacity. Sera, follicular fluids and granulosa cells were obtained from individuals undergoing IVF-ET treatment. The oocyte numbers, oocyte quality, fertilization rate, and pregnancy rate were also recorded. The patients who provided the granulosa cells were further classified into four groups: endometriosis, ovarian endometrioma, endometriosis without ovarian endometrioma, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS); patients with other female factor infertility and male factor infertility were used as controls. We measured the levels of estradiol (E2) by radioimmunoassay. Concurrently, we analyzed the mitochondrial mass and membrane potential, and apoptosis by flow cytometry using nonyl acridine orange, TMRE, Annexin V-FITC and PI. Mitochondrial morphology was visualized by transfection with pLV-mitoDsRed. In addition, we assessed the protein levels of steroidogenic enzymes, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD) by Western blot. The results showed significantly decreased serum E2 and follicular E2 levels, and decreased IVF outcomes, in the patients with endometriosis. Reduced mitochondrial mass and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential were correlated with lower E2. Furthermore, a significant decrease in StAR and 3β-HSD was found in patients with ovarian endometrioma. The enzyme levels of StAR and 3β-HSD were highly correlated with E2 levels. Finally, elevated cumulus cell apoptosis was found in the patient group with ovarian endometrioma and PCOS. In conclusion, mitochondrial dysfunction of human granulosa cells may contribute to the decline of steroidogenesis, decreased fertilization rate, oocyte maturation rate, and oocyte quality, and it can ultimately jeopardize fertility.

Improved method for the preparation of nonyl acridine orange analogues and utilization in detection of cardiolipin

This study was designed to develop a fast and convenient methodology for the preparation of 10-nonyl acridine orange (NAO) and its silyl analogues to improve their photo-physical properties for the detection and quantification of cardiolipin (CL).

Protein Phosphatase 2A Activation Dependent Down Regulation of PGC1-Alpha and FOXO1 Phosphorylation with OSU-2S in Human Lymphoma Cells

Metabolic reprogramming has been recognized to provide survival advantage in cancer cells. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a serine/threonine phosphatase that is involved in regulation of multiple cellular pathways including metabolic events. OSU-2S, is a novel PP2A activator that exhibited potent anti-cancerous properties against human and canine lymphoma cell lines and primary human and canine lymphoma patient samples. It has been shown to activate PP2A in Ramos human lymphoma cell line leading to cytotoxicity that is prevented by inhibition of PP2A with okadaic acid (OA). Peroxisome proliferative activated receptor-gamma co-activator 1 (PPARGC1, also known as PGC1a), is a transcriptional co-activator that serves as a positive regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis and respiration, gluconeogenesis as well as many other metabolic processes such as lipid and energy metabolism. FOXO1 is a transcription factor that directly binds to the promoters of PGC1a and gluconeogenic genes involved in activation of gluconeogenesis. Activated PP2A has been shown to directly interact with FOXO1 and dephosphorylate it, leading to its delayed nuclear translocation. Given the role of PP2A in dephosphorylation of pFOX01, a regulator of PGC1a gene transcription, we hypothesized that PP2A activator OSU-2S, will down regulate PGC-1a expression through PP2A dependent FOXO1 regulation. Consistent with this hypothesis OSU-2S treatment inhibited PGC1a mRNA and protein expression in Jeko, OCI-ly18 and OCI-ly19 and raji lymphoma cell lines 24 hours post treatment. OSU-2S mediated downregulation of PGC1a and mitochondria biogenesis genes (NRF1, ERR alpha and TFAM) are dependent on PP2A activation as concentrations of OA that inhibited PP2A activation abrogated OSU-2S which induced up regulation of PGC1a and mitochondria biogenesis genes . To determine if the OSU-2S mediated inhibition of PGC1a expression is associated with its PP2A dependent modulation of phosphoFOXO1(pFOXO1), we tested the effect of OSU-2S on pFOXO1. Treatment of lymphoma cells with OSU-2S induced 60-70% decrease in pFOXO1 compared to vehicle control P =0.0001)], that is correlated with the decrease in PGC1a protein expression. Importantly OA mediated inhibition of PP2A, prevented OSU-2S-induced FOXO1 dephosphorylation. These studies suggest a role of OSU-2S induced modulation of metabolic regulator PGC1a via PP2A dependent dephosphorylation of FOXO1. Importantly, OSU-2S-induced PGC1a reduction resulted in decreased mitochondrial biogenesis as evidenced by ~43 % decrease in mitochondrial mass and ATP generation that led to reduced energy production as determined by Nonyl Acridine Orange dye staining followed by flow cytometry analysis. Interestingly, OSU-2S decreased expression of genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis including NRF1a, ERR1a and TFAM by 75, 65 and 60% respectively P<0.0001. Ongoing mechanistic studies are aimed to define the molecular basis of OSU-2S induced transcriptional regulation of PGC1a and other genes involved in mitochondrial biogenesis in human lymphoma cell lines and primary cells. (This work was supported by NIH-R01 CA197844-02. SMK is a recipient of Egyptian Cultural and Educational Bureau (ECEB) Award). SG is a recipient of Pelotonia Graduate Fellowship) Keywords: PGC1- alpha, OSU-2S, PP2A, FOXO1, metabolism, lymphoma Disclosures Muthusamy: Ohio State University: Patents & Royalties: OSU-2S.

Detection of Cordycepin Using Indicator Displacement Assay of Cucurbit [7] Uril and Environmentally Sensitive Fluorescent Dyes

Ophiocordyceps and Cordyceps spp. are some of the most popular Chinese herbs because of their bioactive compounds, for example cordycepin that has many pharmacological functions such as anti-tumor, anti-microbes, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulator. The abundant supply of products in the market has different variations in purity and quality, so the rapid and simple quantitative analysis method to access the quality of Ophiocordyceps and Cordyceps products is urgently required. Indicator displacement assay (IDA) using environmentally sensitive fluorescence (FL) dye can be used for quantitative analysis of the target compound. The concept of this assay is replacing the FL dye in the receptor-dye inclusion complex by the analyte. In this study, screening of host series, such as cucurbits[n]uril (CB[n]) and cyclodextrins as well as the finding of the suitable environmental sensitive FL dyes i.e. esculetin, cascade yellow, nonyl acridine orange (NAO), berberine, and 2-p-toluidinyl naphthalene-6-sulphonate (2,6-TNS) were performed. The FL emission of esculetin, cascade yellow, and NAO either decreased or increased slightly upon addition of all hosts mentioned above. Among FL dyes tested, berberine and 2,6-TNS participated in the inclusion complex with CB7 as suggested by the approximately 500-fold and 4-fold FL increment observed when CB7 was added respectively. Cordycepin showed the highest displacement ability when it was titrated with an inclusion complex of berberine/CB7 and 2,6-TNS/CB7 in pH 4.0. Moreover, in the selectivity assay, cordycepin performed the distinguished displacement ability among the other compounds, suggesting about the high potential for using IDA method as a rapid and simple quality assessment of commercial Ophiocordyceps and Cordyceps product.

The role of abnormal mitochondrial fusion and fission in PBDE-47-induced change in mitochondrial mass in PC12 cells

Objective: To investigate the effect of 2, 2', 4, 4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (PBDE-47) on the mitochondrial mass in rat adrenal pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells and the potential mechanisms. Methods: Highly differentiated PC12 cells were divided into control, 1, 10 or 20 μmol/L PBDE-47-treated groups and cultured for 24 h. Transmission electron microscopy was employed to observe the changes in mitochondrial morphology and quantity in PC12 cells. Flow cytometry was used to measure the fluorescence intensity of Nonyl Acridine Orange (NAO) , a fluorescent indicator of mitochondrial membrane cardiolipin, to reflect mitochondria mass. Western blotting was used to determine the expression levels of Mitofusion 1 (Mfn1) and Fission 1 (Fis1) proteins. To further explore the role of abnormal mitochondrial fusion and fission in PBDE-47-induced mitochondrial mass changes, PC12 cells were divided into control group, 5 μmol/L M1 treatment group, 20 μmol/L PBDE-47 treatment group and 5 μmol/L M1+20 μmol/L PBDE-47 combined treatment group and cultured for 24 h, then the fluorescence intensity of NAO and expression levels of Mfn1 and Fis1 proteins were detected. Results: The control group showed numerous mitochondria with normal morphology, while the number of mitochondria decreased after PBDE-47 treatment. Especially, the disappeared cristae, swelling and vacuoles of mitochondria and decreased fluorescence intensity of NAO (P<0.05) were observed in 10 and 20 μmol/L PBDE-47-treated groups. Meanwhile, the expression levels of Mfn1 and Fis1 proteins in the 10 and 20 μmol/L PBDE-47-treated groups were significantly decreased compared with control group (P<0.05) . However, 5 μmol/L M1 co-treatment with 20 μmol/L PBDE-47 significantly increased the levels of Mfn1 and Fis1 proteins and fluorescence intensity of NAO compared with the 20 μmol/L PBDE-47 group (P<0.05) . Conclusion: PBDE-47 can inhibit the mitochondrial fusion and fission process, thus leading to damage of mitochondria mass in PC12 cells.

The Gram-positive model organism Bacillus subtilis does not form microscopically detectable cardiolipin-specific lipid domains.

Rather than being homogenous diffusion-dominated structures, biological membranes can exhibit areas with distinct composition and characteristics, commonly termed as lipid domains. Arguably the most comprehensively studied examples in bacteria are domains formed by cardiolipin, which have been functionally linked to protein targeting, the cell division process and the mode of action of membrane-targeting antimicrobials. Cardiolipin domains were originally identified in the Gram-negative model organism Escherichia coli based on preferential staining by the fluorescent membrane dye nonylacridine orange (NAO), and later reported to also exist in other Gram-negative and -positive bacteria. Recently, the lipid-specificity of NAO has been questioned based on studies conducted in E. coli. This prompted us to reanalyse cardiolipin domains in the Gram-positive model organism Bacillus subtilis. Here we show that logarithmically growing B. subtilis does not form microscopically detectable cardiolipin-specific lipid domains, and that NAO is not a specific stain for cardiolipin in this organism.

Effects of Carbonyl-cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone on Mitochondrial Function of H9C2 Cells

We examined the effects of carbonyl-cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) on mitochondrial function of H9C2 cells. Composition of mitochondrial membrane lipids (cardiolipin) and mitochondrial membrane potential was analyzed by fluorescence intensity change of tetramethl rhodamine ethyl ester (TMRE) and 10-nonyl acridine orange (NAO) using the LSM800 confocal microscope. Our results showed that CCCP strongly and simultaneously affected mitochondrial structure and function of H9C2 cells.

Measurement of Mitochondrial Mass by Flow Cytometry during Oxidative Stress.

Properly assessing mitochondrial health is crucial to understand their role in disease. MitoTracker green (MTG) and nonylacridine orange (NAO) are fluorescent probes which have been commonly used to assess mitochondrial mass. This is based on the assumption that both MTG and NAO accumulate in mitochondria regardless of the mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm). Here, we utilized flow cytometry to evaluate the performance of these probes for assessment of mitochondrial mass relative to forward (FSC) and side scatter (SSC) in human peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL). In isolated mitochondria, two subpopulations were identified by FSC and SSC measurements which were matched to subpopulations stained by MTG and NAO. The performance of these dyes was examined under oxidative and nitrosative stress induced by rotenone and NOC-18 while N-acetylcysteine (NAC) was employed as an antioxidant. Production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ΔΨm were monitored in parallel. With respect to representation of mitochondrial mass, neither MTG nor NAO was affected by ΔΨm. However, MTG showed significant correlation with cytosolic and mitochondrial ROS production and nitrosative stress. Our data suggest that NAO may be more suitable than MTG for assessment of mitochondrial mass by flow cytometry during oxidative stress.

Effects of Acridine Derivatives on Ca2+ Uptake by Candida albicans

The effects of several acridine derivatives, and chloroquine, which has a similar lateral chain to quinacrine, but with a quinoline nucleus, were studied on a strain of Candida albicans. Parameters estimated were: a) dichloromethane/water partition coefficients; b) uptake by cells; c) effects on respiration, d) effects on the acidification of the medium; e) efflux of K+; f) uptake of 86Rb+ and 45Ca2+, and d) effects on growth of cells. Results obtained in general: a) most of them showed a low hydrophobicity; b) most of them were significantly taken up by cells; c) acridine orange, acridine yellow, quinacrine and nonyl acridine orange inhibited respiration; d) acridine orange, quinacrine and nonyl acridine orange inhibited acidification of the medium. The most significant finding was that acridine orange, quinacrine and nonyl acridine orange at 60 μM or 120 μM, and acriflavine at 120 μM produced an efflux of K+, an inhibition of 86Rb+ uptake, and a remarkable many fold increase of 45Ca2+ uptake. Acridine orange and acridine yellow produced only a decrease of duplication time; with the concentrations used, only nonyl acridine orange inhibited growth. It is suggested that quinacrine may be used as an adjuvant or topical agent against candidiasis. Chemical derivatives of some of the dyes might also be used against pathogenic fungi.

Molecular recognition of genomic DNA in a condensate with a model surfactant for potential gene-delivery applications

The functionality of a gene carrying nucleic acid in an artificial gene-delivery system is important for the overall efficiency of the vehicle in vivo. Here, we have studied a well-known artificial gene-delivery system, which is a condensate of calf thymus DNA (CT-DNA) with a model cationic surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) to investigate the molecular recognition of the genomic DNA in the condensate. While dynamic light scattering (DLS) and circular dichroism (CD) reveal structural aspects of the condensate and the constituting DNA respectively, picosecond resolved polarization gated spectroscopy and Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) reveal molecular recognition of the genomic DNA in the condensate. We have considered ethidium bromide (EB) and crystal violet (CV), which are well known DNA-binding agents through intercalative (specific) and electrostatic (non-specific) interactions, respectively, as model ligands for the molecular recognition studies. A fluorescent cationic surfactant, Nonyl Acridine Orange (NAO) is considered to be a mimic of CTAB in the condensate. The polarization gated fluorescence of NAO at various temperatures has been used to investigate the local microviscosity of the condensate. The excellent spectral overlap of NAO emission and the absorption spectra of both EB and CV allow us to investigate FRET-distances of the ligands with respect to NAO in the condensate at various temperatures and thermal stability of ligand-binding of the genomic DNA. The thermodynamic properties of the molecular recognition have also been explored using Van't Hoff equation. We have also extended our studies to molecular recognition of the genomic DNA in the condensate as dried thin films. This has important implications for its application in bioelectronics.

Mitochondrial Redox Opto-Lipidomics Reveals Mono-Oxygenated Cardiolipins as Pro-Apoptotic Death Signals.

While opto-genetics has proven to have tremendous value in revealing the functions of the macromolecular machinery in cells, it is not amenable to exploration of small molecules such as phospholipids (PLs). Here, we describe a redox opto-lipidomics approach based on a combination of high affinity light-sensitive ligands to specific PLs in mitochondria with LC-MS based redox lipidomics/bioinformatics analysis for the characterization of pro-apoptotic lipid signals. We identified the formation of mono-oxygenated derivatives of C18:2-containing cardiolipins (CLs) in mitochondria after the exposure of 10-nonylacridine orange bromide (NAO)-loaded cells to light. We ascertained that these signals emerge as an immediate opto-lipidomics response, but they decay long before the commencement of apoptotic cell death. We found that a protonophoric uncoupler caused depolarization of mitochondria and prevented the mitochondrial accumulation of NAO, inhibited the formation of C18:2-CL oxidation product,s and protected cells from death. Redox opto-lipidomics extends the power of opto-biologic protocols to studies of small PL molecules resilient to opto-genetic manipulations.

Studies directed towards nonyl acridine orange analogues having the potential to act as FRET donors with the PDT drug Pc 4

Analogues of nonyl acridine orange (NAO) were made by quaternization of substituted acridine oranges. The Pc 4-FRET occurrence of these NAO analogues in cells was investigated.

Electrochemical potential of the inner mitochondrial membrane and Ca(2+) homeostasis of myometrium cells

We demonstrated using Ca(2+)-sensitive fluorescent probe, mitochondria binding dyes, and confocal laser scanning microscopy, that elimination of electrochemical potential of uterus myocytes' inner mitochondrial membrane by aprotonophore carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (10 μM), and by a respiratory chain complex IV inhibitor sodium azide (1 mM) is associated with substantial increase of Ca2+ concentration in myoplasm in the case of the protonophore effect only, but not in the case of the azide effect. In particular, with the use of nonyl acridine orange, a mitochondria-specific dye, and 9-aminoacridine, an agent that binds to membrane compartments in the presence of proton gradient, we showed that both the protonophore and the respiratory chain inhibitor cause the proton gradient on mitochondrial inner membrane to dissipate when introduced into incubation medium. We also proved with the help of 3,3'-dihexyloxacarbocyanine, a potential-sensitive carbocyanine-derived fluorescent probe, that the application of these substances results in dissipation of the membrane's electrical potential. The elimination of mitochondrial electrochemical potential by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone causes substantial increase in fluorescence of Ca(2+)-sensitive Fluo-4 AM dye in myoplasm of smooth muscle cells. The results obtained were qualitatively confirmed with flow cytometry of mitochondria isolated through differential centrifugation and loaded with Fluo-4 AM. Particularly, Ca2+ matrix influx induced by addition of the exogenous cation is totally inhibited by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone. Therefore, using two independent fluorometric methods, namely confocal laser scanning microscopy and flow cytometry, with Ca(2+)-sensitive Fluo-4 AM fluorescent probe, we proved on the models of freshly isolated myocytes and uterus smooth muscle mitochondria isolated by differential centrifugation sedimentation that the electrochemical gradient of inner membrane is an important component of mechanisms that regulate Ca2+ homeostasis in myometrium cells.

A Versatile Cell Death Screening Assay Using Dye-Stained Cells and Multivariate Image Analysis.

A novel dye-based method for measuring cell death in image-based screens is presented. Unlike conventional high- and medium-throughput cell death assays that measure only one form of cell death accurately, using multivariate analysis of micrographs of cells stained with the inexpensive mix, red dye nonyl acridine orange, and a nuclear stain, it was possible to quantify cell death induced by a variety of different agonists even without a positive control. Surprisingly, using a single known cytotoxic agent as a positive control for training a multivariate classifier allowed accurate quantification of cytotoxicity for mechanistically unrelated compounds enabling generation of dose–response curves. Comparison with low throughput biochemical methods suggested that cell death was accurately distinguished from cell stress induced by low concentrations of the bioactive compounds Tunicamycin and Brefeldin A. High-throughput image-based format analyses of more than 300 kinase inhibitors correctly identified 11 as cytotoxic with only 1 false positive. The simplicity and robustness of this dye-based assay makes it particularly suited to live cell screening for toxic compounds.

Toxicity and oxidative stress induced by semiconducting polymer dots in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages.

The rapid development and acceptance of PDots for biological applications depends on an in depth understanding of their cytotoxicity. In this paper, we performed a comprehensive study of PDot cytotoxicity at both the gross cell effect level (such as cell viability, proliferation and necrosis) and more subtle effects (such as redox stress) on RAW264.7 cells, a murine macrophage cell line with high relevance to in vivo nanoparticle disposition. The redox stress measurements assessed were inner mitochondrial membrane lipid peroxidation (nonyl-acridine orange, NAO), total thiol level (monobromobimane, MBB), and pyridine nucleotide redox status (NAD(P)H autofluorescence). Because of the extensive work already performed with QDots on nanotoxicity and also because of their comparable size, QDots were chosen as a comparison/reference nanoparticle for this study. The results showed that PDots exhibit cytotoxic effects to a much lesser degree than their inorganic analogue (QDots) and are much brighter, allowing for much lower concentrations to be used in various biological applications. In addition, at lower dose levels (2.5 nM to 10 nM) PDot treatment resulted in higher total thiol level than those found with QDots. At higher dose levels (20 nM to 40 nM) QDots caused significantly higher thiol levels in RAW264.7 cells, than was seen with PDots, suggesting that QDots elicit compensation to oxidative stress by upregulating GSH synthesis. At the higher concentrations of QDots, NAD(P)H levels showed an initial depletion, then repletion to a level that was greater than vehicle controls. PDots showed a similar trend but this was not statistically significant. Because PDots elicit less oxidative stress and cytotoxicity at low concentrations than QDots, and because they exhibit superior fluorescence at these low concentrations, PDots are predicted to have enhanced utility in biomedical applications.