Nonverbal Immediacy Behaviors Research Articles

First impression sexual scripts of romantic encounters: Effect of gender on verbal and non verbal immediacy behaviors in American media dating culture

The current study investigates sexual scripts in reality dating shows—in particular, how the gender of the communicator affects the choice of verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors aimed at making a first impression. Data were drawn from 331 couples of opposite-sex heterosexual strangers interacting for approximately 30 seconds on two reality dating shows: The Bachelor and The Bachelorette (2012–2019). As a result, a codebook of verbal immediacy cues ( N = 1623) and nonverbal immediacy cues ( N = 3021) was derived. The findings showed that verbal behavior encompassed 11 categories of verbal immediacy cues, while nonverbal behavior included 32 categories of nonverbal immediacy cues. Results also showed gender-related preferences for verbal immediacy behavior; for instance, men were more likely to outline the probability of relationship development and pay compliments; conversely, women were prone to intriguing men to arouse curiosity and interest. As for nonverbal immediacy behavior, men were predisposed to use clothes straightening, while women tended to communicate immediacy through head tilt, shoulder shrug, gaze down, gaze side(s), eyebrow flashes, hand-in-hand, hug, pat, holding hands in front of their bodies, and hair grooming. Nonetheless, the similarities between men and women were found to be greater than the differences. These findings could have wide-reaching implications for theorizing on social and cultural norms, gender stereotypes, and traditional gender roles in intimate relationships in the form of sexual scripts, along with contributing to the study of reality television.

Classroom goal structures and communication style: the role of teacher immediacy and relevance-making in students’ perceptions of the classroom

We examined the relationships between teachers’ communication styles and students’ perceptions of the classroom goal structure. Within the context of high school health classes focused on teaching about HIV/STD/pregnancy prevention, we surveyed 456 students about their teachers’ immediacy behaviors, efforts to make course content relevant, and their perceptions of the classroom goal structure. We found that the more teachers stressed the relevance of course material and used verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors, the more students perceived a mastery goal structure in their classrooms. Conversely, when teachers did not emphasize these immediacy behaviors, students were more likely to perceive an avoidance goal structure. Immediacy behaviors were not related to perceptions of an extrinsic goal structure. Our results suggest that teachers can help create a positive, mastery-oriented classroom by communicating with students in a way that demonstrates authentic care and concern for students’ learning. Implications for future research into cues students rely on when perceiving classroom goal structurers and implications for instruction are discussed.

Structural Equation Model of Personality Traits, Psychopathology, and Nonverbal Immediacy Behavior.

The aim of this study is to examine the relationships between personality traits, psychopathology, and nonverbal immediacy behaviors. The study gains importance because of the fact that personality traits, psychopathology, and the concept of nonverbal immediacy have not been studied together in Turkish culture. The research sample was created with the convenience sampling method, one of the nonrandom sampling methods. The sample consisted of 336 university students aged 18 and over. In the study, the 10-Item Personality Inventory, Nonverbal Immediacy Scale-Self Report Form (NIS-STr), Symptom Checklist (SCL-90-R), and Communicator Styles Scale were used. To examine the effect of personality traits on SCL-90-R and the effect of SCL-90-R scores on nonverbal immediacy behavior, a structural equation model was used and the path analysis of the model was created. Although it was determined that the scores for conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion in the scale of resilience to the scope of the study did not significantly predict the SCL-90-R scores (P > 0.05), the scores for agreeableness (β = 0.38, P < 0.05) and openness (β = 0.38, P < 0.05) predicted the SCL-90-R scores significantly and positively. In addition, it was determined that the scores of other applications from the SCL-90-R were similarly significant surrounding other predictors of NIS-STr scores (β = -0.30, P < 0.05). It can be stated that personality traits are predictors of psychopathological symptoms. Students' SCL-90-R scores positively predicted the NIS-STr scores in a statistically negative way.

Students’ affective learning factors in learning English on teachers’ nonverbal immediacy

This study aims at finding out how the students perceive teachers’ nonverbal immediacy that affects their attitude in learning English. Also, this study investigates how the students perceive teachers’ nonverbal immediacy that affects their motivation in learning English. The researcher used observation and questionnaires to collect the data. The results of this study showed that fifteen out of sixteen teachers’ nonverbal immediacy behaviors were perceived positively in affecting the students’ positive attitude in learning English. Similarly, this study also showed that fifteen students perceived the teachers’ nonverbal immediacy behavior affected their motivation in learning English. The researcher concluded that the students would have a positive attitude and high motivation in learning English if a teacher employs nonverbal immediacy behaviors suitably in her teaching or interaction with the students

Students’ Perception of Teachers Nonverbal Immediacy Behavior toward Students’ Attitude and Motivation in Learning English

The objectives of the research were to provide information about students’ perception of teachers’ nonverbal immediacy behavior toward students’ attitude and motivation in learning English. This research is descriptive by nature employing mixed method QUAN-qual model. Participants of this research were the students of X IIS 2 and XI MIA 4 who were taught by male and female teacher. The data were obtained from questionnaire, group interview, and observation. The data from questionnaire were analyzed by using simple descriptive statistic and the data from interview and observation were analyzed by using interactive model of data analysis procedure consisting data collection, data reduction, and data display, and conclusion drawing. The finding showed that the mean score of students’ attitude was 76.56 under category positive attitude. The mean score of students’ motivation was 75.43 under category motivated. The students perceived that teachers’ nonverbal immediacy behavior influenced their attitude and motivation positively or negatively depending on particularr determinant factors such as religion, culture, and age. The findings led to the onclusion that managing nonverbal immediacy behaviors was very important for teachers because the behaviors could help changing students’ attitude from negative attitude became positive attitude and changing students motivation from demotivated became motivated during learning process in the class.Key words: Nonverbal immediacy behavior, attitude, motivation

Superior–Subordinate Communication in the Workplace: Verbal Aggression, Nonverbal Immediacy, and Their Joint Effects on Perceived Superior Credibility

This study examined the joint effects of a superior’s verbally aggressive behaviors and nonverbal immediacy behaviors on a subordinate’s perceptions of a superior’s credibility. Participants (n = 415) from intact classes were randomly assigned into one of the four experiment conditions simulated by four video segments: use of nonverbal immediacy and verbal aggression, nonuse of nonverbal immediacy and use of verbal aggression, use of nonverbal immediacy and nonuse of verbal aggression, and nonuse of nonverbal immediacy and verbal aggression. The findings indicate that superiors who do not use verbally aggressive messages and who are nonverbally immediate were perceived with a higher level of competence, trustworthiness, and caring than superiors who use verbally aggressive messages and who are not nonverbally immediate. In addition, superiors who use verbally aggressive messages and who are nonverbally immediate were perceived with the lowest level of perceived competence as compared to superiors in the other three conditions.

Students’ Perception about Teachers’ Nonverbal Immediacy Behavior: A Case of Communication Sciences Faculty

Few concepts in instructional communication literature have received as much attention as teacher immediacy. Although it is very intensively researched in foreign literature, there are small amount of research in Turkey about in class communication especially nonverbal immediacy behaviors. The purpose of this study is to determine how communication students’ evaluate their lecturers’ nonverbal immediacy behaviors. Nonverbal Immediacy Scale (NIS), which was developed by Richmond, McCroskey, and Johnson (2003) were used to collect data. The NIS was applied to 185 college of communication students from a University located in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. Results indicate that colleges of communication students are finding adequate teachers’ nonverbal immediacy behaviors and there are no differences between males and females level of perception.

Nonverbal immediacy behaviors and online student engagement: bringing past instructional research into the present virtual classroom

ABSTRACTNonverbal immediacy behaviors are underresearched in the online teaching environment. Using social presence theory as a guiding framework, this study explores several online nonverbal immediacy behaviors: emoticons/figurative language, color, cohesion, visual imagery, and audio in course design; response latency, length, time of day, and message frequency in forums; and type and promptness of feedback via grading and email. Coding of 51 online courses found that more consistent use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors was related to students’ reports of higher course engagement. However, the nonverbal behaviors most associated with engagement were the ones not used as often. Findings indicate instructors can improve the effectiveness of online learning environments via nonverbal immediacy behaviors.

STUDENTS’ VS. TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES ON BEST TEACHER CHARACTERISTICS IN EFL CLASSROOMS

This paper discusses the perspectives of students and teachers in a university setting about best teacher characteristics. This is viewed through the perspectives of students and teachers regarding their perceptions of qualities of English teachers, and teachers’ immediacy behavior – verbal or non-verbal - as predictors of student academic motivation. In this study, 126 students and 28 teachers in the English department atState University of Manado, Indonesia were involved. From the questionnaire, this study proved that a teacher was an important personnel in EFL teaching. Both teacher and students believed that a good teacher should display personal and academic attitudes. Both parties also considered that there were certain verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors teachers performed which could be the source of motivating as well as demotivating the students. This study is expected to give understanding of how teaching English in a foreign language context can be better.

Nonverbal Social Sensing in Action: Unobtrusive Recording and Extracting of Nonverbal Behavior in Social Interactions Illustrated with a Research Example

Nonverbal behavior coding is typically conducted by “hand”. To remedy this time and resource intensive undertaking, we illustrate how nonverbal social sensing, defined as the automated recording and extracting of nonverbal behavior via ubiquitous social sensing platforms, can be achieved. More precisely, we show how and what kind of nonverbal cues can be extracted and to what extent automated extracted nonverbal cues can be validly obtained with an illustrative research example. In a job interview, the applicant’s vocal and visual nonverbal immediacy behavior was automatically sensed and extracted. Results show that the applicant’s nonverbal behavior can be validly extracted. Moreover, both visual and vocal applicant nonverbal behavior predict recruiter hiring decision, which is in line with previous findings on manually coded applicant nonverbal behavior. Finally, applicant average turn duration, tempo variation, and gazing best predict recruiter hiring decision. Results and implications of such a nonverbal social sensing for future research are discussed.

A Comparison of the Relationship Between Instructor Nonverbal Immediacy and Teacher Credibility in Brazilian and U.S. Classrooms

Sixty-six students at a Brazilian university and 100 students at a large university in the Southeastern United States completed measures of nonverbal immediacy and source credibility regarding the instructor in the class immediately prior to the one in which the research took place. Among U.S. students, perceived instructor nonverbal immediacy behavior was positively associated with all 3 dimensions of source credibility: competence, trustworthiness, and caring. Among Brazilian students, instructor nonverbal immediacy was positively related to competence and caring only. The relationship of nonverbal immediacy to instructor competence was stronger Brazilian than it was for U.S. students.

Instructors' Perceptions of Teaching Behaviors, Communication Apprehension, and Student Nonverbal Responsiveness in the Classroom

This study explored the relationships between instructors' views of their own nonverbal immediacy, confirmation, and caring behaviors, as well as their trait communication apprehension (CA), with their perceptions of their students' nonverbal responsiveness. Results indicated significant, positive relationships among instructors' perceptions of their nonverbal immediacy, confirmation, caring, and perceived student nonverbal responsiveness in the classroom. In addition, a negative relationship was found between instructors' perceptions of their CA and perceived student nonverbal responsiveness.

The Effect of Instructor Nonverbal Immediacy Behaviors and Feedback Sensitivity on Hispanic Students' Affective Learning Outcomes in Ninth-Grade Writing Conferences

The purpose of this study was to show how instructor use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors influence Hispanic students' affective learning in ninth-grade writing conferences, regardless of the level of feedback sensitivity provided. According to Kluger and DeNisi's (1996) feedback intervention theory, when feedback is direct and targeted on the task, learning is enhanced. If feedback is indirect and targeted on the relationship or feelings, then learning is diminished. Regardless of whether the relational feedback is perceived as positive or negative, learning is diminished because the learner's focus is diverted away from the task itself (Kluger & DeNisi). Three hypotheses were tested using a 2×2 experimental design. The independent variables were teacher nonverbal immediacy (immediate/nonimmediate) and sensitivity of feedback (high/low verbal sensitivity). The dependent variables were Hispanic students' affect for teacher and affective learning for writing. All three hypotheses were supported in that teacher nonverbal immediacy positively impacted students' affect for the teacher (H1), writing conference (H2), and writing process (H3) regardless of how sensitive the teacher's feedback was during the writing conference. Implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

Fostering Nonverbal Immediacy and Teacher Identity through an Acting Course in English Teacher Education

This research study focuses on integrating acting theories in pre-service English teacher education so as to improve nonverbal immediacy behavior and to contribute to the development process of teacher identity. Studies on incorporation of acting literature into teacher education provide educators with some significant findings clearly indicating that certain teacher competences can be fostered effectively by benefiting from acting theories and practices. While focusing on different aspects and competences of the teaching profession, these studies are in a general accord with the idea that teacher education programs should give more attention to actor preparation theories and techniques so as to promote effective teaching at all levels of instruction. The results indicate that the nonverbal immediacy behavior of pre- service teacher trainees improved significantly via an acting course for teachers. Also, prospective teachers displayed a remarkable development in constructing their professional identities.

Coaches' Immediacy Behaviors as Predictors of Athletes' Perceptions of Satisfaction and Team Cohesion

This study sought to determine whether coaches' immediacy behaviors serve as predictors of athletes' satisfaction and team cohesion levels. Participants included 307 male and female high school athletes who completed measures assessing perceptions of their coaches' verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors, as well as their own levels of satisfaction and cohesion. Overall, results indicated that immediacy behaviors accounted for between 9% and 19% of the variance attributed to athletes' satisfaction and team cohesion levels. Specifically, hierarchical regression analysis indicated that coaches' verbal immediacy emerged as the only significant predictor of athletes' satisfaction in their sport, after accounting for athlete playing status and team success. Likewise, the results indicated that coaches' verbal immediacy behaviors were significant predictors of three of the four dependent measures of team cohesion, while perceived nonverbal immediacy behaviors emerged as a predictor for social attraction to group, and were the only significant predictor of task group integration. Discussion focuses on the implications, both empirical and theoretical, for how findings related to coach–athlete interaction can be used to advance our understanding of instructional communication.

Instructors Who Resist “College Lite”: The Neutralizing Effect of Instructor Immediacy on Students’ Course-Workload Violations and Perceptions of Instructor Credibility and Affective Learning

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an instructor's nonverbal immediacy behaviors and course-workload demands on student perceptions of instructor credibility and student higher-order affective learning. H1 and H2 predicted that an instructor's nonverbal immediacy behaviors would neutralize the instructor's violations of students’ course-workload expectations in a manner that would preserve students’ perceptions of instructor credibility and higher-order affective learning. H1 and H2 were supported. H3 predicted that students who experienced a highly immediate instructor with moderate course-workload demands would report significantly more higher-order affective learning than students who experienced a highly immediate instructor with low or high course-workload demands. H3 was not supported. Implications for instructors are discussed.

Parents’ Interpersonal Distance and Touch Behavior and Child Pain and Distress during Painful Pediatric Oncology Procedures

Children with cancer and their parents report that treatment-related procedures are more traumatic and painful than cancer itself. Competing hypotheses have emerged regarding relations between parents’ social support and child pain and distress. Little is known about caregivers’ use of nonverbal immediacy behaviors that may function as social support messages. This study describes caregivers’ interpersonal distance and touch behaviors during painful pediatric oncology procedures and examines relations between those behaviors and children’s pain and distress. Caregivers’ total touch time and instrumental (task-oriented) touch time, but not supportive touch time, during the actual procedure covaried with children’s procedural pain and distress.

“Sad Monkey See, Monkey Do:” Nonverbal Matching in Emotional Support Encounters

The current study examined the interpersonal coordination of nonverbal immediacy behaviors in the emotional support process. Participants (N = 216) disclosed a distressing event to a confederate who was trained to exhibit emotional support that varied in high, moderate, or low nonverbal immediacy. After the 5-minute conversation, participants evaluated the confederate on several scales. Trained coders coded 10 immediacy cues of confederates and participants. Results indicated that participants tended to match confederates, regardless of the immediacy condition. Perceived liking for the helper did not moderate immediacy matching and exerted only a main effect on confederate immediacy; participants reported liking better highly immediate helpers than either moderately immediate or nonimmediate helpers. The study also generated several sex differences, such that, with the exception of eye contact, women tended to match confederates more than did men.

Testing the Neutralizing Effect of Instructor Immediacy on Student Course Workload Expectancy Violations and Tolerance for Instructor Unavailability

This study investigates how an instructor's use of relational messages, specifically nonverbal immediacy behaviors, may neutralize how students interpret instructor course workload demands and student expectations for instructor availability. It was hypothesized that instructor immediacy would temper instructor course workload demands that violated student expectations in a way that preserved student affect for the instructor (H1), student compliance with instructor course workload demands (H2), and student tolerance for instructor unavailability (H3). The first hypothesis was supported; however, the second and third hypotheses were not supported. The data suggest that instructor course workload demands negatively impacted student compliance (H2) and neither instructor immediacy nor workload demands impacted student tolerance for instructor unavailability in a meaningful manner (H3). Implication and directions for future research are discussed.

Are We Violating Their Expectations? Instructor Communication Expectations of Traditional and Nontraditional Students

For years, researchers have been telling teachers how to communicate with students. Advising them to be immediate, clear and engage in affinity-seeking behaviors has been based on traditional undergraduate student responses. Adult education scholars recognize age and experience create unique expectations for instructors and the learning environment. Utilizing Expectancy Violations Theory, an investigation of traditional and nontraditional students’ prescriptive expectations and experiences with instructor nonverbal immediacy, verbal immediacy, affinity seeking, and clarity behaviors reveals that differences exist and expectations are violated. Nontraditional students’ expectations for affinity seeking were positively violated, traditional students’ expectations for verbal immediacy were negatively violated, and expectations for instructor clarity behaviors were negatively violated for both groups.