Nonverbal Ability Research Articles

Characteristics of early cognitive development in children with Williams syndrome: a prospective cohort study

To investigate the early cognitive development characteristics of children with Williams syndrome (WS) at different age stages. From September 2018 to June 2023, 106 children diagnosed with WS at the Department of Pediatric Health Care, Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, aged 1 to <5 years, were prospectively enrolled. All children underwent Gesell developmental diagnostic assessments to analyze the cognitive development characteristics of WS children across different age groups. The average age of the 106 WS children was (3.1±1.2) years; 58 were male, and 48 were female. There were no significant differences in developmental levels between males and females in the five domains of gross motor skills, fine motor skills, language, personal-social skills, and adaptive behavior (P>0.05). The incidence rates of mild, moderate, severe, and profound developmental disabilities among children of different age groups showed no significant differences (P>0.05). Comparisons of developmental levels in gross motor skills, language, personal-social skills, and adaptive behavior among different age groups were also not statistically significant (P>0.05). With the increase of age, the developmental level of fine motor skills showed a decreasing trend (P<0.05). There were no significant differences in verbal IQ and non-verbal IQ within each age group of WS children (P>0.05). The overall developmental level of WS children stabilizes with age, and their early language abilities do not significantly exceed their non-verbal abilities.

Behaviour and Psychopathology in Preschool Children with William Syndrome and the Effects of Age, Sex and Cognition.

The current study compared the prevalence of cognitive and psychopathological impairments among 24 preschool children with Williams syndrome (WS) (aged 2.20 to 5.97years) and 53 controls without WS and screened for developmental or psychological diagnoses (aged 2.21 to 5.89years) matched on chronological age and sex distribution. Associations between sex, chronological age, early development and psychopathology were also investigated. The Child Behavior Checklist-Preschool Version (CBCL) and the Mullen Scales of Early Learning were administered. Higher reported rates of Attention Problems, Emotional Reactivity, Somatic Complaints, Withdrawal, Affective Problems and Total Problems were found in preschool children with WS. There were no significant group differences in prevalence rates of all other CBCL domains. Attention Problems were the most prevalent psychopathology in preschool children with WS (33% falling in the clinically significant range), followed by Affective Problems (29% in clinically significant range), then Anxiety Problems (17%) or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Problems (17%). Among children without WS, the highest prevalence rates of psychopathology were for Attention Problems (4% falling in the clinically significant range), Aggressive Behaviour (4%), Sleep Problems (4%) and Oppositional Defiant Problems (4%). There were no significant associations between sex or chronological age and CBCL-reported psychopathology for either group. In addition, there were no significant relationships between CBCL ratings and verbal ability, nonverbal ability or overall developmental level in either group. Findings highlight variations in the pattern of psychopathology among preschool children with WS compared to those without WS, which needs to be considered in clinical management and future research.

Cognitive and Social-Emotional Development in Girls With Fragile X Syndrome.

To evaluate the developmental trajectory of key cognitive, social, and emotional features in girls with fragile X syndrome (FXS). This longitudinal, parallel cohort study collected data between January 2018 and December 2022. Participants were evaluated 3 times with ∼12-18 months between visits. Participants included 65 girls with FXS, 6 to 16 years, and 52 age- and developmentally-matched girls without FXS. Participants' scores from direct assessment and caregiver report evaluated 3 cognitive domains (verbal abilities, nonverbal abilities, executive function) and 4 social-emotional domains (depression, general anxiety, social behavior, and social anxiety). Participants included 117 girls (mean [M] [SD] age at study entry: FXS M = 10.59 [3.00]; comparison M = 10.45 [2.40])). Omnibus tests showed 4 domains with significant group differences: Verbal (P < .0001, eg, Differential Abilities Scale-II(DAS-II), Picture Vocabulary (-6.25 [1.87])), nonverbal (P < .0001, eg, Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition, Brief Form, Math (-8.56 [2.90])), executive function (P < .0001, eg, NIH Toolbox List Sorting (-6.26 [1.48])), and social anxiety (P < .03, eg, Anxiety, Depression, and Mood Scale (ADAMS) Social Avoidance (1.50 [0.65])). Three domains had significant group by age interaction: Verbal (P < .04, eg, DAS-II, Word Definitions (-1.33 [0.55])), social behavior (P < .01, eg, Social Responsiveness Scale-2 Social Communication (1.57 [0.51])), and social anxiety (P < .01, eg, ADAMS Social Avoidance (0.46 [0.19])). These findings support the development of early, disorder specific interventions for girls with FXS targeting verbal and nonverbal skills, executive function, social behavior, and social anxiety.

Neurocognition and academic achievement among bereaved children in the Generation R Cohort

Childhood bereavement is an adverse event, yet children demonstrate considerable variability in health outcomes. Bereaved children are at risk of lower lifelong educational attainment, though the contribution of neurocognitive performance is yet to be investigated. Using data from the population-based Generation R Study wherein nearly 10,000 pregnant mothers were recruited between 2002 and 2006, we estimated the association of bereavement by age 10 years with four subtests of cognitive function and academic achievement at 13 years. Bereavement by 10 years of age was experienced by n = 796 (37.3%) of youth and was associated with a 1.12-point (SD = 0.55; p-value = 0.04) lower full-scale IQ at 13 years, which was mainly driven by lower matrix reasoning scores (βadjusted = −0.27, SE = 0.11, p < 0.02). There were no differences in academic achievement or other subtests of neurocognitive function between bereaved and non-bereaved children. Secondary analyses adjusting for pre-bereavement nonverbal cognitive ability and mental health problems revealed an overall association between bereavement and subsequent full-scale IQ and matrix reasoning, but only among those youth whose caregivers reported that the loss had an emotional influence on the child. These novel findings leveraging prospective assessments in a population-based birth cohort highlight risk and resilience mechanisms warranting further research.

Association between HIV and cytomegalovirus and neurocognitive outcomes among children with HIV.

Children with HIV may experience adverse neurocognitive outcomes despite antiretroviral therapy (ART). Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is common in children with HIV. Among children on ART, we examined the influences of early HIV viral load (VL) and CMV DNA on neurocognition. We determined the association between pre-ART VL, cumulative VL, and CMV viremia and neurocognition using data from a cohort study. Children who initiated ART before 12 months of age were enrolled from 2007-2010 in Nairobi, Kenya. Blood was collected at enrollment and every 6 months thereafter. Four neurocognitive assessments with 12 domains were conducted when children were a median age of 7 years. Primary outcomes included cognitive ability, executive function, attention, and motor. Generalized linear models were used to determine associations between HIV VL (pre-ART and cumulative; N = 38) and peak CMV DNA (by 24 months of age; N = 20) and neurocognitive outcomes. In adjusted models, higher peak CMV viremia by 24 months of age was associated with lower cognitive ability and motor z-scores. Higher pre-ART HIV VL was associated with lower executive function z-scores. Among secondary outcomes, higher pre-ART VL was associated with lower mean nonverbal and metacognition z-scores. Higher pre-ART VL and CMV DNA in infancy were associated with lower executive function, nonverbal and metacognition scores and cognitive ability scores in childhood, respectively. These findings suggest long-term benefits of early HIV viral suppression and CMV control on neurocognition.

Substance misuse by birth parents: Outcomes for children and young people placed into out-of-home-care

BackgroundThere is inconsistent evidence regarding the effect of birth parent substance use on developmental outcomes for children placed into out-of-home-care (OOHC). ObjectiveThis study aims to examine how parental substance use affects outcomes of Australian children in out-of-home care, adjusting for key demographic, social and system factors. Participants and settingFour waves of survey data were collected for children and young people who agreed to participate in the Pathways of Care Longitudinal Study (POCLS) between 2011 and 2018. The study sample included 1,506 children and young people (792 with a history of parental substance misuse) aged 9 months to 17 years who participated in at least one wave of the POCLS and had linked administrative data from the Department of Communities and Justice (DCJ), NSW, Australia. MethodsMultilevel longitudinal models were used to analyse the relationship of child developmental outcomes (physical health, socio-emotional wellbeing, and verbal and non-verbal cognitive ability) with parental substance misuse in their child protection history. Each model included adjustments for child demographics, family socio-economic status, child protection system factors and the unbalanced panel. ResultsChildren in OOHC with a history of parental substance misuse were more likely to be in the typical range for verbal cognitive development compared to those in OOHC without this history. In addition, younger (9 months to 5 years) children with a record of parental substance misuse exhibited significantly more typical fine and gross motor skill development than those without this history. ConclusionsConcerns that children in OOHC with a history of parental substance misuse may be more affected with regards to early-stage physical development, and later verbal cognitive development than those without this history in OOHC, may not be justified.

Speech sound error patterns may signal language disorder in Swedish preschool children with autism.

Within cohorts of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) there is considerable variation in terms of language ability. In the past, it was believed that children with ASD either had delayed articulation and phonology skills or excelled in those areas compared to other language domains. Very little is known about speech sound ability in relation to language ability and non-verbal ability in Swedish preschool children with ASD. The current study aimed to describe language variation in a group of 4-6-year-old children with ASD, focusing on in-depth analyses of speech sound error patterns with and without non-phonological language disorder and concomitant non-verbal delays. We examined and analysed the speech sound skills (including consonant inventory, percentage of correct consonants and speech sound error patterns) in relation to receptive language skills in a sample of preschool children who had screened positive for ASD in a population-based screening at 2.5 years of age. Seventy-three children diagnosed with ASD participated and were divided into subgroups based on their receptive language (i.e., non-phonological language) and non-verbal abilities. The subgroup division revealed that 29 children (40%) had language delay/disorder without concurrent non-verbal general cognitive delay (ALD), 27 children (37%) had language delay/disorder with non-verbal general cognitive delay (AGD), and 17 children (23%) had language and non-verbal abilities within the normal range (ALN). Results revealed that children with ALD and children with AGD both had atypical speech sound error patterns significantly more often than the children with ALN. This study showed that many children who had screened positive for ASD before age 3 years - with or without non-verbal general cognitive delays - had deficits in language as well as in speech sound ability. However, individual differences were considerable. Our results point to speech sound error patterns as a potential clinical marker for language problems (disorder/delay) in preschool children with ASD. What is already known on the subject Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have deficits in social communication, restricted interests and repetitive behaviour. They show very considerable variation in both receptive and expressive language abilities. Previously, articulation and phonology were viewed as either delayed in children with ASD or superior compared with other (non-phonological) language domains. What this paper adds to existing knowledge Children with ASD and language disorders also have problems with speech sound error patterns. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? About 75% of children with ASD experience language delays/disorders, as well as speech sound problems, related to speech sound error patterns. Understanding/acknowledging these phonological patterns and their implications can help in the diagnosis and intervention of speech sound disorders in children with ASD. Direct intervention targeting phonology might lead to language gains, but more research is needed.

Reading Comprehension and Linguistic Abilities of Children with and without Specific Learning Difficulties: Theoretical and Educational Implications

The aim of the present study has been to investigate reading comprehension (RC) of children with specific learning difficulties (SLD), considering linguistic factors, such as receptive vocabulary, morphosyntax, and pragmatics (i.e., figurative language). Participants included 90 students (9–12 years old; Μyears = 10.8, SD = 0.95), 45 with SLD and 45 typically developing (TD) controls, matched on age, gender, and non-verbal cognitive ability. Results indicated that students with SLD had significantly lower performance on RC and across all linguistic measures compared to TD peers. Scores of the figurative language comprehension task predicted RC for TD children, whereas morphosyntactic ability emerged as a unique predictor of RC for SLD children. The two groups utilize distinct linguistic resources in their effort to extract meaning from written texts. The differentiated language profile of children with SLD suggests the implementation of differentiated educational assessment and intervention practices, which are discussed.

HIV-related cognitive disorders in children in Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo)

ObjectivesHIV-infected individuals are at increased risk of neurocognitive disorders compared with the general population. Studies suggest that, despite the combination of antiretroviral drugs, HIV infection causes immune activation leading to significant neural damage; however, there is little data on HIV-infected young people in our country.MethodologyThis is a comparative cross-sectional study conducted between November 2020 and March 2021 on two hundred and sixteen children aged 6–15 years, including 106 HIV-positive children and 108 healthy children. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Differential Ability Scale Second Edition (DAS-II).ResultsHIV-infected children showed lower cognitive scores than control children in the subtest group of verbal ability (82.1% vs. 43.5%); non-verbal ability (84.9% vs. 45.4%); spatial ability (79.2% vs. 21.3%) and generall conceptual ability (GCA) (88.7% vs. 43.5%). The children in the control group had significantly higher ability scores in the diagnostic tests and in school achievement, and the difference was statistically significant.ConclusionCognitive impairment remains a significant complication in HIV-positive children, as suggested by low cognitive scores in more than half of our participants. This is an unresolved issue with implications for survival, quality of life and daily functioning in these children. It is important that clinicians are able to identify and manage these cognitive deficits.

The relationship between metacognitive monitoring, non-verbal intellectual ability, and memory performance in kindergarten children

When assessing their certainty, children are often poor at accurately monitoring their level of learning. The study examined the relationships between memory performance, intellectual ability, and metacognitive monitoring accuracy in kindergarten children. We also explored whether specific thresholds in memory performance and non-verbal intellectual ability influence metacognitive monitoring accuracy to identify group-specific patterns that might be masked by an overall linear analysis. We assessed the monitoring discrimination of 290 kindergarteners (Mage 6 years) using a paired-associates learning task. Results showed small correlations between task performance, intellectual ability, and metacognitive monitoring. Non-verbal intellectual ability provided explanatory value for monitoring accuracy beyond memory performance. We observed group-specific results consistent with the unskilled-and-unaware effect; children with the highest memory skills were more effective at discriminating between correct and incorrect answers than their peers with the lowest memory skills. However, kindergarteners with the highest non-verbal intellectual abilities did not demonstrate greater cognitive adaptability in novel tasks, as their monitoring accuracy was comparable to that of peers with average or lower intellectual abilities. Findings indicate that both task performance and non-verbal intellectual ability are relevant for monitoring accuracy, but the impact of non-verbal intellectual ability was less significant than anticipated. The modest correlation suggests that kindergarteners' non-verbal intellectual ability and metacognitive monitoring abilities operate relatively independently.

Spatial exploration and navigation in Down syndrome and Williams syndrome

We know little about the ability to explore and navigate large-scale space for people with intellectual disability (ID). In this cross-syndrome study, individuals with Down syndrome (DS), individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) and typically developing children (TD; aged 5–11 years) explored virtual environments with the goal of learning where everything was within the environment (Experiment 1) or to find six stars (Experiment 2).There was little difference between the WS and DS groups when the goal was simply to learn about the environment with no specific destination to be reached (Experiment 1); both groups performed at a level akin to a subset of TD children of a similar level of non-verbal ability. The difference became evident when the goal of the task was to locate targets in the environment (Experiment 2). The DS group showed the weakest performance, performing at or below the level of a subset of TD children at a similar level of non-verbal ability, whilst the WS group performed at the level of the TD subset group. The DS, WS and TD group also demonstrated different patterns of exploration behavior. Exploration behaviour in DS was weak and did not improve across trials. In WS, exploration behavior changed across trials but was atypical (the number of revisits increased with repeated trials). Moreover, transdiagnostic individual difference analysis (Latent Profile Analysis) revealed five profiles of exploration and navigation variables, none of which were uniquely specific to DS or to WS. Only the most extreme profile of very poor navigators was specific to participants with DS and WS. Interestingly, all other profiles contained at least one individual with DS and at least one individual with WS. This highlights the importance of investigating heterogeneity in the performance of individuals with intellectual disability and the usefulness of a data-driven transdiagnostic approach to identifying behavioral profiles.

Pengembangan Instrumen Skala Perkembangan Komunikasi Nonverbal pada Anak Usia 0-18 Bulan

Abstract Background: Most children miss the opportunity to receive developmental assessments due to a lack of screening tools. Assessment instruments are a problem that must be resolved immediately and early detection efforts are key in preventive and habilitative programs. Currently there is no valid and reliable instrument to measure the development of nonverbal communication in children. Objective: This research aims to develop an assessment instrument for the Nonverbal Communication Development Scale (SPK-Nv) and test whether the instrument is valid and reliable in measuring nonverbal abilities in children aged 0-18 months in Sananwetan District, Blitar City. Method: The type of research used is quantitative descriptive research. Test logical validity through Expert Judgment using Itemrated Content Validity Index (I-CVI) analysis and logical reliability using Inter-Rater Reliability (IRR). Then it was tested on a sample of typical children aged 0-18 months using Simple Random Sampling with a total of 161 children as respondents. Validity test uses Pearson product moment correlations and Reliability Test uses Cronbach's Alpha. Thesis Results: The Development Stage SPK-Nv instrument consists of 40 question items. Testing content validity through Expert Judgment with I-CVI analysis obtained a relevance value of 1.00 and Inter-Rater Reliability (IRR) Kappa Fleiss with a value of 0.298, so it means that the items in the SPK-Nv Instrument are relevant and reliable with a Fair level of agreement. The next stage, SPK-Nv was tested on 161 samples. As a result, the SPK-Nv instrument has 35 valid and reliable question items to measure nonverbal communication skills in children aged 0-18 months in Sananwetan Blitar sub-district. Conclusion: The SPK-Nv instrument that has been developed and prepared has 35 valid and relevant question items for measuring nonverbal communication skills in children aged 0-18 months in Sananwetan District, Blitar City. Keywords: Development of Nonverbal Communication, in children, Early Childhood Language Development, Preverbal, Prelinguistic skills

Subtle Patterns of Altered Responsiveness to Delayed Auditory Feedback during Finger Tapping in People Who Stutter.

Differences in sensorimotor integration mechanisms have been observed between people who stutter (PWS) and controls who do not. Delayed auditory feedback (DAF) introduces timing discrepancies between perception and action, disrupting sequence production in verbal and non-verbal domains. While DAF consistently enhances speech fluency in PWS, its impact on non-verbal sensorimotor synchronization abilities remains unexplored. A total of 11 PWS and 13 matched controls completed five tasks: (1) unpaced tapping; (2) synchronization-continuation task (SCT) without auditory feedback; (3) SCT with DAF, with instruction either to align the sound in time with the metronome; or (4) to ignore the sound and align their physical tap to the metronome. Additionally, we measured participants' sensitivity to detecting delayed feedback using a (5) delay discrimination task. Results showed that DAF significantly affected performance in controls as a function of delay duration, despite being irrelevant to the task. Conversely, PWS performance remained stable across delays. When auditory feedback was absent, no differences were found between PWS and controls. Moreover, PWS were less able to detect delays in speech and tapping tasks. These findings show subtle differences in non-verbal sensorimotor performance between PWS and controls, specifically when action-perception loops are disrupted by delays, contributing to models of sensorimotor integration in stuttering.

Testing mechanisms underlying children's reading development: The power of learning lexical representations.

Prominent theories of reading development have separately emphasized the relevance of children's skill in learning (Share, 2008) and lexical representations (Perfetti & Hart, 2002). Integrating these ideas, we examined whether skill in learning lexical representations is a mechanism that might explain children's reading development. To do so we conducted a longitudinal study, following 139 children from Grades 3 to 5. In Grade 3, children completed measures of word reading and reading comprehension and again at Grade 5. In Grade 4, children read short stories containing novel words; they were later tested on their memory for the spellings and meanings of these new words, capturing orthographic and semantic learning, respectively. Using multiple-mediation path analysis, we tested whether children's skill in learning orthographic and semantic dimensions of new words was a mediator of individual differences in each of word reading and reading comprehension. In models controlling for nonverbal ability, working memory, vocabulary, and phonological awareness, we found two clear effects: individual differences in orthographic learning at Grade 4 mediated the gains that children made in word reading between Grades 3 and 5 and individual differences in semantic learning at Grade 4 mediated gains in reading comprehension over the same time period. These findings suggest that children's ability to learn lexical representations is a mechanism in reading development, with orthographic effects on word reading and semantic effects on reading comprehension. These findings show the power and the specificity of children's capacity to learn in determining their progress in learning to read. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Resting Frontal Gamma Power is Associated with Both Expressive Language and Non-verbal Cognitive Abilities in Young Autistic Children.

Previous research links resting frontal gamma power to key developmental outcomes in young neurotypical (NT) children and infants at risk for language impairment. However, it remains unclear whether gamma power is specifically associated with language or with more general cognitive abilities among young children diagnosedwith autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The current study evaluates differences in resting frontal gamma power between young autistic and NT children and tests whether gamma power is uniquely associated with individual differences in expressive language, receptive language and non-verbal cognitive abilities in autistic and NT children. Participants included 48 autistic children and 58 age- and sex-matched NT children (ages 22-60months). Baseline electroencephalography (EEG) recordings were acquired from each participant. Children also completed the Mullen Scales of Early Learning (MSEL). We found thatfrontal gamma power at rest did not differ between autistic and NT children. Among autistic children, reduced frontal gamma power was significantly associated with both higher expressive language skills and higher non-verbal cognitive skills, controlling for age and sex. The interaction between frontal gamma power and diagnostic status no longer explained unique variance in expressive language skills after controlling for variance associated with non-verbal cognitive skills across autistic and NT children. Together, these findings suggest that reduced gamma power is associated with both better expressive language and non-verbal cognitive skills among young autistic children. Moreover, associations between high frequency neural activity and cognition are not specific to verbal abilities but reflect neural mechanisms associated with general higher-order cognitive abilities in ASD.

Predicting Language Function Post-Stroke: A Model-Based Structural Connectivity Approach

Background The prediction of post-stroke language function is essential for the development of individualized treatment plans based on the personal recovery potential of aphasic stroke patients. Objective To establish a framework for integrating information on connectivity disruption of the language network based on routinely collected clinical magnetic resonance (MR) images into Random Forest modeling to predict post-stroke language function. Methods Language function was assessed in 76 stroke patients from the Non-Invasive Repeated Therapeutic Stimulation for Aphasia Recovery trial, using the Token Test (TT), Boston Naming Test (BNT), and Semantic Verbal Fluency (sVF) Test as primary outcome measures. Individual infarct masks were superimposed onto a diffusion tensor imaging tractogram reference set to calculate Change in Connectivity scores of language-relevant gray matter regions as estimates of structural connectivity disruption. Multivariable Random Forest models were derived to predict language function. Results Random Forest models explained moderate to high amount of variance at baseline and follow-up for the TT (62.7% and 76.2%), BNT (47.0% and 84.3%), and sVF (52.2% and 61.1%). Initial language function and non-verbal cognitive ability were the most important variables to predict language function. Connectivity disruption explained additional variance, resulting in a prediction error increase of up to 12.8% with variable omission. Left middle temporal gyrus (12.8%) and supramarginal gyrus (9.8%) were identified as among the most important network nodes. Conclusion Connectivity disruption of the language network adds predictive value beyond lesion volume, initial language function, and non-verbal cognitive ability. Obtaining information on connectivity disruption based on routine clinical MR images constitutes a significant advancement toward practical clinical application.

Metabolic trade-offs in childhood: Exploring the relationship between language development and body growth.

During human childhood, brain development and body growth compete for limited metabolic resources, resulting in a trade-off where energy allocated to brain development can decrease as body growth accelerates. This preregistered study explores the relationship between language skills, serving as a proxy for brain development, and body mass index at three distinct developmental stages, representing different phases of body growth. Longitudinal data from 2002 children in the EDEN mother-child cohort were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Our findings reveal a compelling pattern of associations: girls with a delayed adiposity rebound, signaling slower growth rate, demonstrated better language proficiency at ages 5-6. Importantly, this correlation appears to be specific to language skills and does not extend to nonverbal cognitive abilities. Exploratory analyses show that early environmental factors contributing to enhanced cognitive development, such as higher parental socio-economic status and increased cognitive stimulation, are positively associated with both language skills and the timing of adiposity rebound in girls. Overall, our findings lend support to the existence of an energy allocation trade-off mechanism that appears to prioritize language function over body growth investment in girls.

Do verbal and nonverbal declarative memory tasks in second language research measure the same abilities?

AbstractA growing body of evidence demonstrates that individual differences in declarative memory may be an important predictor of second language (L2) abilities. However, the evidence comes from studies using different declarative memory tasks that vary in their reliance on verbal abilities and task demands, which preclude estimating the size of the relationship between declarative memory and L2 learning. To address these concerns, we examined the relationship between verbal and nonverbal declarative memory abilities within the same task while controlling for task demands and stimulus modality, to estimate the upper bound of the relationship between verbal and nonverbal declarative memory. Results indicate that when task demands and stimulus modality are controlled, verbal and nonverbal declarative memory abilities shared a medium-to-large amount of underlying variance. However, future studies should exercise caution in appraising associations between declarative memory abilities and L2 learning until a more precise understanding of the underlying mechanisms is achieved.

Speech, language, functional communication, psychosocial outcomes and QOL in school-age children with congenital unilateral hearing loss.

Children with early-identified unilateral hearing loss (UHL) might be at risk for delays in early speech and language, functional communication, psychosocial skills, and quality of life (QOL). However, a paucity of relevant research prohibits strong conclusions. This study aimed to provide new evidence relevant to this issue. Participants were 34 children, ages 9;0 to 12;7 (years;months), who were identified with UHL via newborn hearing screening. Nineteen children had been fitted with hearing devices, whereas 15 had not. Assessments included measures of speech perception and intelligibility; language and cognition; functional communication; psychosocial abilities; and QOL. As a group, the children scored significantly below the normative mean and more than one standard deviation below the typical range on speech perception in spatially separated noise, and significantly below the normative mean on written passage comprehension. Outcomes in other aspects appear typical. There was however considerable within participant variation in the children's degree of hearing loss over time, raising the possibility that this pattern of results might change as children get older. The current study also revealed that participants with higher levels of nonverbal ability demonstrated better general language skills and better ability to comprehend written passages. By contrast, neither perception of speech in collocated noise nor fitting with a hearing device accounted for unique variance in outcome measures. Future research should, however, evaluate the fitting of hearing devices using random assignment of participants to groups in order to avoid any confounding influence of degree of hearing loss or children's past/current level of progress.

Early-life cumulative exposure to excess bodyweight and midlife cognitive function: longitudinal analysis in three British birth cohorts

Excess bodyweight (BMI >25 kg/m2) in midlife (age 40-65 years) has been linked to future cognitive decline and an increased risk of dementia. Whether chronic exposure to excess bodyweight in the early decades of life (<40 years) is associated with compromised cognitive function by midlife, however, remains unclear. This study therefore aimed to test potential bidirectional direct and indirect pathways linking cumulative exposure to excess bodyweight and cognitive function in the early decades of life. In this longitudinal analysis, harmonised measures of BMI and cognitive function were available in 19 742 participants aged 47-53 years recruited to the 1946 National Survey of Health and Development (n=2131), the 1958 National Child Development Study (n=9385), and the 1970 British Cohort Study (n=8226). Individual BMI trajectories spanning three decades from age 10-40 years were created for each participant and excess bodyweight duration, BMI change between ages, and cumulative excess bodyweight exposure were calculated. Harmonised measures of verbal and non-verbal ability, mathematical ability, and reading ability were used to create a latent factor for childhood cognitive function, and immediate and delayed recall, animal naming, and letter-search speed tests were used for midlife cognitive function. Multivariable linear regression and structural equation models (SEM) were used to test for potential bidirectional relationships between cognition and excess bodyweight in both individual cohorts and pooled datasets while accounting for other potential early-life confounders. Increases in BMI during adolescence and greater cumulative exposure to excess bodyweight across early life were associated with lower midlife cognitive function in all cohorts (eg, pooled difference in cognitive function per 10 years excess bodyweight duration -0·10; 95% CI -0·12 to -0·08; p<0·001). Further adjustment for childhood cognitive function attenuated many of these associations towards the null (eg, pooled difference in cognitive function per 10 years excess bodyweight duration -0·04; 95% CI -0·06 to -0·02; p=0·001), however, with any remaining associations then fully attenuating once further adjusted for other early-life factors (eg, pooled difference in cognitive function per 10 years excess bodyweight duration 0, -0·03 to 0·01; p=0·38). In the reverse direction, low childhood cognition was associated with greater cumulative exposure to excess bodyweight over the next four decades, although much of this relationship was found to probably be explained via other potentially modifiable upstream early-life factors such as childhood disadvantage. SEM in all cohorts suggested the presence of modest direct and indirect pathways connecting earlier cognitive function to later excess bodyweight, but scarce evidence for an effect of early-life excess bodyweight on cognitive function by midlife. The association between cumulative exposure to excess bodyweight in early life and lower cognitive function in midlife is probably confounded by a persistently lower cognitive function from childhood. Initiatives to improve early-life factors such as childhood disadvantage and education, however, might exert dual but independent benefits on both of these factors before old age. Alzheimer's Research UK, Diabetes Research and Wellness Foundation, Diabetes UK, British Heart Foundation, and Medical Research Council.