Non-uniform Load Distribution Research Articles

The influence of different load distribution considering geometric error on the fatigue life of ball screw

The ball screw pair is a precision drive component that converts rotary motion into linear motion. In practical applications, because the feed system usually has rotational torque and geometric errors, it may increase the contact load of the ball screw pair and reduce the fatigue life. In order to study the influence of different loads and geometric errors on the maximum contact load and fatigue life of ball screw pairs, the following research work was carried out. Firstly, based on the composite load and rotational torque, the ball load distribution model is established, and the accuracy of the model is verified by finite element modeling analysis. Then, the influence of different composite loads, rotation times and geometric errors (including ball size error, lead error and raceway tooth profile error) on the ball load distribution is analyzed. Finally, the influence of compound load, rotating torque and geometric error on the fatigue life of ball screw pairs is studied. The results show that the rotational torque and lead error have a great influence on the load distribution and fatigue life of the ball, and the influence of lead error on load distribution is greater than that of dimension error and tooth profile error. The fatigue life of the ball screw pair with non-uniform load distribution is shorter than that of the ball screw pair with uniform load distribution.

Regional shear wave speeds track regional axial stress in nonuniformly loaded fibrous soft tissues

Ligaments and tendons undergo nonuniform deformation during movement. While deformations can be imaged, it remains challenging to use such information to infer regional tissue loading. Shear wave tensiometry is a promising noninvasive technique to gauge axial stress and is premised on a tensioned beam model. However, it is unknown whether tensiometry can predict regional stress in a nonuniformly loaded structure. The objectives of this study were to (1) determine whether regional shear wave speed tracks regional axial stress in nonuniformly loaded fibrous soft tissues, and (2) determine the sensitivity of regional axial stress and shear wave speed to nonuniform load distribution and fiber alignment. We created a representative set of 12,000 dynamic finite element models of a fibrous soft tissue with probabilistic variations in fiber alignment, stiffness, and aspect ratio. In each model, we applied a randomly selected nonuniform load distribution, and then excited a shear wave and tracked its regional propagation. We found that regional shear wave speed was an excellent predictor of the regional axial stress (RMSE = 0.57 MPa) and that the nature of the regional shear wave speed-stress relationship was consistent with a tensioned beam model (R2 = 0.99). Variations in nonuniform load distribution and fiber alignment did not substantially alter the wave speed-stress relationship, particularly at higher loads. Thus, these findings suggests that shear wave tensiometry could provide a quantitative estimate of regional tissue stress in ligaments and tendons.

High-temperature axial tensile property and fire resisting performance of CFRP strand cable

High-temperature tensile tests and fire resisting performance tests were conducted on carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strand cable, respectively, to identify axial tensile property deterioration of CFRP strand tendon (i.e., cable without initial tensile load) under 100–600℃ temperature range and determine fire resisting duration and ultimate temperature of CFRP strand cable with initial tensile load ratio from 0.2 to 0.8. High-temperature axial tensile property and fire resisting performance of different cables including CFRP and steel cables were compared to identify influence of non-uniform load distribution. The obtained results demonstrated that the dominate failure modes of specimen in both high-temperature tensile test and fire resisting performance test are tensile failure. Due to the degradation of mechanical property of resin matrix and bonding performance for resin matrix-fiber bundle interface exposed to elevated temperature, axial tensile strength of CFRP strand tendon degraded by 33.4% and 80.8% under 210℃ (glass transition temperature) and 600℃, respectively, compared to that under ambient temperature. Fire resisting duration of CFRP strand cables varied from 1.3 to 16.4 mins, indicating poor fire resisting performance. Reduction coefficient of bearing capacity for CFRP strand tendon decreased from 0.96 to 0.74 as temperature varied from 25 to 400℃, and then increased to 1.54 at 600℃. Compared to ribbed CFRP cable, CFRP strand cables with initial tensile load ratios ranging of 0.4 ∼ 0.8 (low ultimate temperatures) display worse fire resisting performance due to the prominent non-uniform load distribution among seven wires. Axial tensile strength and reduction coefficient of bearing capacity for CFRP strand tendon exposed to elevated temperature and fire resisting duration of CFRP strand cable and ribbed CFRP cable can be accurately predicted by the developed practical models.

Local subsidence behavior of linear guideway assembly resting on a rough elastic foundation

The accurate stiffness estimation of linear guideway assembly is determined by the structural deformation of carriage and supporting rail-pedestal-bolt joint. This paper proposes an analytical model to investigate the stiffness and local subsidence behaviors of linear guideway assembly. The different preload states between the upper and lower raceways are revealed, and the retraction behavior of carriage wing is found. Considering the local subsidence of the rail below a carriage, the proposed model reports the non-uniform load distribution along the finite-length rail, which is placed on the rough foundation and assembled by bolts. Loading tests are performed to verify the local sinking effect and the model accuracy. The developed model is promising to serve to the deformation error compensation.

Theoretical modeling of the pre-cutting system performance for the tunnel face stability in very weak rock masses

By forming continuous pre-lining around the tunnel's perimeter, pre-cutting is a recognized tunneling technique that enables full-face excavation of a tunnel even in unfavorable ground conditions. In this study, a theoretical method is put out to simulate the performance of this kind of pre-support in squeezing conditions. The loading distribution on the pre-cutting shells is determined for this purpose using the LDP of an unsupported tunnel, and the non-linear stiffness of the pre-cutting shell is then determined using the shell theory. The convergence confinement method is used to calculate how much the pre-supported tunnel isdeformed. The non-uniform loading distribution also results in the tangential and longitudinal bending moments on the pre-cutting shell. To show the effectiveness of pre-cutting shells in extremesqueezingconditions, several examples are solved. As a result, a few graphs for the preliminarydesign of a tunnel using this technique are given. The graphs show the overall tunnel displacement for various pre-cutting shells under various geological conditions. The outcomes demonstrate good agreement between FALC 3D resultsand the ones by thesuggested analytical model. A preliminary design can be made using the assessment of the proposed methodonthe loads on the pre-cutting system.

Analysis of contact characteristics of ball screws under the combined loads considering non-uniform load distribution

Analysis of contact characteristics of ball screws under the combined loads considering non-uniform load distribution

Analytical study on vibration behaviors of pump-jet–shaft–submarine hull system in wavenumber–frequency​ domain

The pump-jet excitation is transmitted to submarine hull along rotor–shaft system and duct–stator system, which is one of the main causes of structural vibration of the hull. This paper proposes an analytical method for the coupled shaft–submarine hull system. The submarine hull is modeled as a jointed conical-orthogonally stiffened cylindrical–spherical shell coupled with several circular plates. The shaft is modeled with a three-dimensional beam and connected to the hull by bearings. A unified variational modeling procedure is developed to assemble each substructure. The hydrodynamic pressure acting on the rotor and the duct–stator system are respectively considered as single point force and multiple uniformly or non-uniformly spaced point forces acting on the shaft and the conical shell. The vibration displacements are analytically expanded with Fourier series in the circumferential direction. Thus, the wavenumber components that contribute to vibration responses are naturally separated and quantified. The convergence and accuracy of the proposed method are verified by the finite element method. The analytical study on vibration characteristics of the pump-jet–shaft–submarine hull system along distinct vibration transferring paths in circumferential wavenumber–frequency domain is conducted. The results indicate that the rotor excitation can excite more resonance peaks compared to the duct–stator excitation when neglecting the elasticity of the pump-jet propulsor. It mainly owns to the strong circumferential modal coupling and abundant modal contributions when the system is under the rotor excitation. Besides, the non-uniform distribution of external load contributes to the augmentation of resonance peaks compared to the responses under uniform load, which attributes to the participation of extra wavenumber components.

3D printed biodegradable polymer reinforced concrete with high structural stability

The increase in the utilization of non-degradable polymers in the construction industry has raised reservations regarding eco-friendly and energy-efficient building solutions. The contemporary solution is the natural fiber reinforced concrete that registers low structural stability and high water absorption. The low strength is due to the non-homogenous distribution of fibers in composite causing non-uniform load distribution and water absorption is the result of hydrophilicity of natural fibers. This research proposes, for the first time, the manufacturing of biodegradable reinforcements for concrete in specific geometries using 3D printing (fused deposition modeling). The 3D printed reinforcements of polylactic acid concentrate the load in a uniform direction during compressive, flexure, and tensile testing. The reinforcements are tested with respect to different orientations and thicknesses in the concrete composite. The stability to water absorption is investigated using BS 1881 standard followed by post-water absorption compressive testing for concrete composites. The research presents in-situ image analysis for all mechanical characterizations that reveals true fracture behavior along with the validation of mechanical results. The flexure strength shows significant increase to 10.8 MPa as compared to the plain concrete samples. The water absorption test also shows prominent reduction of water absorption to 4.3 % as compared to 7.7 % of plain concrete sample. Overall, the novel reinforced concrete results in superior mechanical properties and moisture stability as compared to the plain (control) concrete and natural sisal fiber reinforced concrete composite.

Nonuniform load distribution of two-dimensional C/SiC z-pinned joints with four pins in a rectangular array prepared via chemical vapor infiltration

The design of ceramic matrix composite (CMC) mechanical joints takes into account the pseudoplastic mechanical behavior of CMC fasteners and the effect of the nonuniform microstructure. In this study, based on the linear correlation between the shear performance of two-dimensional (2D) C/SiC rivets and the rivet porosity, special z-pinned joints with four pins in a rectangular array with different porosities were prepared via the chemical vapor infiltration online gas-phase joining method, and a method is proposed to indirectly characterize the pin load distribution by measuring the strain distribution around the holes. The results show that the nonuniform distribution of the 2D C/SiC rivet density leads to an uneven distribution of the pin loads in the z-pinned joints with four pins in a rectangular array. The bearing ratio of the transversal rivets depends on the inverse of the ratio of the compliance coefficient of the two. The longitudinal rivets are capable to transfer the load; that is, the bottom transversal joint of the rivets is loaded first, and after the load limit is reached, the top transversal joint of the rivets starts to be loaded. Matrix cracking, crack deflection, interlayer sliding, fiber shearing, and fiber pull-out control rivet shearing. The dense rivets squeeze around the holes, leading to an uneven distribution of the pin loads. Oxidation at 700 °C leads to the fibers debonding from the matrix and cracking, which promotes crack deflection, interlayer sliding, and fiber pull-out; thus, the uneven pin load distribution tends to be uniform.

Effect of Debonding on Axial Response of Concrete Filled Steel Tubular Columns

The axial strength and ductility of concrete filled steel tubes is significantly improved due to two major factors namely, firstly due to confining effect provided by steel tube, and secondly due to the synergistic interaction between steel tube and concrete core. Sometimes, the contact between concrete core and steel tube is vanished and debonding between concrete core and steel tube (normal referred as gap) occurs owing to various reasons such as improper compaction, shrinkage in concrete, lack of curing of encased concrete, and due to non-uniform distribution of load at column top. Due to occurrence of gap, the composite action between concrete core and steel tube no longer remains effective the concrete core becomes unconfined in the initial phase of loading, consequently, the axial load carrying capacity of the concrete filled steel tubular (CFST) column decreases. The aim of this paper is to numerically investigate the effect of the gap between concrete core and steel tube on the axial load-deformation response and to Comparisons the predicted column strengths according to the Eurocode-4. In the present study, the gap between square section concrete core and encasing steel tube is considered on all the four sides with the magnitude of gap as 1 mm and 2 mm. Moreover, in order to investigate the effect of the gap on different size of square section CFST columns, keeping the length of column and steel tube thickness as constant 540 mm and 3.8 mm respectively, the side length of square section CFST column has been varied between 140 mm to 200 mm at an interval of 20 mm. The nonlinear finite element analysis of the CFST columns has been performed using the Abaqus where the C3D8R element has been used to discretize the concrete core as well as steel tube and the Drucker-Prager model has been used to simulate plastic behaviour of concrete. It has been observed that the presence of gaps between concrete core and steel tube significantly reduces the axial strength square CFST column.

A unified performance-based blast-resistant design approach for RC beams/columns

Critical political and economic infrastructures are threatened by the intentional and accidental explosions. At present, the analytical model and design approach for blast loaded RC beams/columns considering both the local and global member responses are studied. Firstly, by classifying the damage levels from the local response perspective, i.e., no damage, spalling and breach of blast loaded RC beams/columns, based on total 119 shots of field explosion test, the critical scaled distance distinguishing the local and global responses of RC members is experimentally determined as 0.78 m/kg1/3. For local responses, the field explosion test based design chart of the logarithmic scaled thickness against the logarithmic scaled distance is plotted. Secondly, as for global responses, an improved SDOF model, incorporating the direct shear, flexural-shear and flexural responses of RC members, is established, which comprehensively considers the nonuniform distribution of blast load, strain rate effect, P-Delta effect, compressive arching effect and the rigid body rotation of supports. Furthermore, the proposed SDOF model is validated by seven sets of explosion tests on RC beams/columns with simply-supported and fixed-end boundaries from aspects of direct shear, flexural-shear, and flexural responses. Finally, a unified performance-based blast-resistant design procedure is proposed, and lays the foundation for an independently developed code named Tongji-RC-Blast, which is a reliable and efficient blast-resistant evaluation and design tool for the protective engineers and designers.

FedDOVe: A Federated Deep Q-learning-based Offloading for Vehicular fog computing

Connected Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) aim to provide various smart transportation applications which have computation-intensive tasks. The vehicles having less availability of computational resources offload tasks to roadside units (RSUs) for processing. Renewable energy-powered RSUs have limited energy, storage, and computational capabilities. To reduce the computation load at RSUs, vehicular fog computing is used for computation-intensive tasks. Vehicular fog computing brings the computational resources nearer to the requesting devices for reducing the latency in the request fulfillment. RSU computes the tasks either locally or offloads computation-intensive tasks to the fog server for further processing. In vehicular fog computing, one of the most important problems is to find an optimal association of RSUs with fog servers for computation offloading. A significant energy consumption occurs across RSUs in offloading computation-intensive tasks to fog servers. On the other hand, fog servers may have uneven computation load due to varying offloading rate across the road segments. The non-uniform distribution of computation load across fog servers may increase the latency in the request fulfillment. In this paper, we propose an online Federated Deep Q-learning-based Offloading technique for Vehicular fog computing (FedDOVe) which jointly optimizes the energy consumption across RSUs and load balancing across fog servers. FedDOVe is a model-free reinforcement learning approach that uses the global information for finding an optimal association between RSUs and fog servers. Simulation results show that the proposed FedDOVe reduces the energy consumption by about 47%–49% and improves load balancing by about 60%–65% as compared to other existing offloading techniques.

Embedded Cooling of High-Heat-Flux Hotspots Using Self-Adaptive Microchannel/Pin-Fin Hybrid Heat Sink

The chips present unsteady and highly concentrated heat fluxes and the available volume for cooling solution is significantly constrained with the trend of miniaturization and integration. Traditional liquid cooling techniques fail to regulate the coolant distribution according to the changing thermal environment and remove the unevenly distributed thermal loads effectively. In this article, embedded cooling with self-adaptive microchannel/pin-fin hybrid heat sink is proposed. Hybrid channels with thermal-sensitive hydrogels at the outlet are designed and integrated into the substrate. A numerical model is established and an iteration procedure is designed to investigate the flow regulation behavior. The hydrogel downstream of the hotspot undergoes volume reduction and the local coolant flow rate is enlarged, illustrating the autonomous flow regulation effect. Various nonuniform heat load distributions are considered. Taking advantage of the current self-adaptive cooling solution, heat flux of up to 500 W/cm2 can be dissipated and the peak temperature is reduced by 12.2 K with a pressure drop of 34.0 kPa. The embedded self-adaptive cooling provides both effective and intelligent thermal management for densely integrated electronics.

Study on Structural Vibration Characteristics of L-Shaped Flexible Ring Gear and Establishment of System Coupling Vibration Model

L-shaped flexible ring gear is a new solution to the non-uniform load distribution of planetary transmission systems. At present, the research on L-shaped flexible ring gear is still focused on its meshing characteristics and dynamic load sharing performance, and its structural vibration characteristics and dynamic coupling vibration characteristics with the system are not involved. Considering that the structural flexibility of the L-shaped flexible ring gear is significantly higher than that of the traditional ring gear, the structural vibration will obviously affect the load sharing and dynamic load factor performance of the transmission system, as well as the safety and reliability of the mechanism. Due to its strong structural flexibility and structural particularity, the existing dynamic analysis model is difficult to meet the requirements of analysis and design. In this paper, the coupling vibration model of L-shaped flexible ring gear planetary transmission systems is established, and the structural vibration characteristics of L-shaped flexible ring gear and its influence on the dynamic performance of the systems are deeply analyzed. The model foundation and theoretical guidance are provided for the design of L-shaped flexible ring gear and the analysis of the dynamic characteristics of flexible ring gear systems.

Tool Wear Classification in Automated Drilling Operations of Aircraft Structure Components using Artificial Intelligence Methods

<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">Structural components in fuselage barrels are joined with the help of riveting processes. Concerning the key feature of rivet drill hole size and drilling quality, a poorly executed drilling operation can lead to serious riveting defects such as rivet play or fracture due to non-uniform load distribution. Consequently, the drilling process of a rivet hole and its correct execution is of vast importance for the airworthiness of an aircraft. The condition of the drill used, i.e., the current tool wear, has a direct effect on the quality of the hole. Since conventional approaches, such as changing the tool after a predefined number of process cycles, do not reflect real tool wear, premature wear may occur, resulting in defects. Thus, the online-detection of tool wear for necessitated replacement may indicate a promising future direction in quality control. Since the aircraft industry has a particularly high requirement for defect-free production of structural components, this paper presents a study on the online-detection of tool wear in automated drilling processes using a combination of external sensor technology and Artificial Intelligence methods. For this reason, a laboratory setup to conduct automatic drilling operations in fuselage material is introduced. Two sensor types are utilized to capture the process data that is evaluated by machine learning algorithms. The performance of different machine learning algorithms is measured, and recommendations for action in sensor solutions, and the respective choice of algorithms for this task, are derived. Finally, the results of the study are discussed, and recourse for future work is elaborated upon.</div></div>

Mechanical testing of adhesive, self-piercing rivet, and hybrid jointed aluminum under tension loading

Joining technologies play a crucial role in facilitating vehicle weight reduction, while maintaining structural performance and vehicle crashworthiness. Adhesive and self-piercing rivet (SPR) joining have individually been assessed in joining multi-material structures including aluminum alloys; however, limitations include fixturing requirements for adhesive joints and non-uniform load distribution within SPR joints. Hybrid (adhesive-SPR) joining has been proposed to potentially address these limitations. Yet, there is limited data regarding the strength, stiffness and energy absorption of hybrid joints under tension loading, and a lack of quantitative comparisons between adhesive, SPR and hybrid joints. In the present study, adhesive, SPR and hybrid joints were created in aluminum H-shaped tension specimens and the joint morphologies were quantified. Joint strength, stiffness and energy absorption were compared for two aluminum sheet metal alloys and three sheet thicknesses. Adhesive joints exhibited higher strength (up to 20.5%) and stiffness (up to 422%) than SPR joints, while SPR joints demonstrated higher energy absorption (up to 352%). Hybrid joints in 3 mm sheet exhibited reduced strength and stiffness relative to adhesive joints. Importantly, hybrid joints for 1 and 2 mm sheet thicknesses demonstrated strength and stiffness comparable to adhesive joints (<8% difference), and improved energy absorption compared to adhesive (up to 336%) and SPR joints (up to 53.5%), enhancing the performance of the individual methods. The study results could facilitate identifying suitable joining method, sheet thickness and alloy type according to structural applications (e.g. intrusion prevention versus energy-absorbing structures), and support future adoption and improvement of hybrid joints.

4D imaging of chemo-mechanical membrane degradation in polymer electrolyte fuel cells - Part 1: Understanding and evading edge failures

This work is a two-part article series on chemo-mechanical membrane degradation in fuel cells, wherein the present work in Part 1 investigates edge failure and Part 2 investigates failure within the active area of an edge-protected cell. Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) edges are sensitive regions that can cause premature failure. Here, two different MEA frame designs are implemented to study their robustness during a combined chemical/mechanical membrane degradation accelerated stress test. 4D in situ visualization by periodic, identical-location X-ray computed tomography is performed to understand and thus mitigate the design issues responsible for edge failures. Interfacial interaction of adhesive-containing polyimide gasket and MEA and non-uniform load distribution along MEA edges are identified as the two key contributors to premature edge failures, which introduce significant cell voltage decay due to permanent membrane deformation. Edge failure mitigation is demonstrated by using a non-adhesive sub-gasket along with increased gasket coverage area, which leads to: (i) delayed onset of edge failure; (ii) five times reduction in edge crack size; (iii) elimination of membrane tearing; and (iv) minimal impact of edge failures on cell performance, thus enabling a robust MEA edge wherein the performance-impacting failure is shifted to the more important active area regions. • 4D in situ visualization scheme is applied to study membrane failure at MEA edges. • Edge crack propagation at identical MEA locations is captured for the first time. • Edge failure occurs primarily due to non-uniform interfacial stress distribution. • A robust MEA frame design is demonstrated that can endure chemo-mechanical stress.

Cheetah: A High-Speed Programmable Load-Balancer Framework With Guaranteed Per-Connection-Consistency

Large service providers use load balancers to dispatch millions of incoming connections per second towards thousands of servers. There are two basic yet critical requirements for a load balancer: <i>uniform load distribution</i> of the incoming connections across the servers, which requires to support advanced load balancing mechanisms, and <i>per-connection-consistency</i> (PCC), i.e, the ability to map packets belonging to the same connection to the same server even in the presence of changes in the number of active servers and load balancers. Yet, simultaneously meeting these requirements has been an elusive goal. Today&#x2019;s load balancers minimize PCC violations at the price of non-uniform load distribution. This paper presents Cheetah, a load balancer that supports advanced load balancing mechanisms <i>and</i> PCC while being scalable, memory efficient, fast at processing packets, and offers comparable resilience to clogging attacks as with today&#x2019;s load balancers. The Cheetah LB design guarantees PCC for <i>any</i> realizable server selection load balancing mechanism and can be deployed in both stateless and stateful manners, depending on operational needs. We implemented Cheetah on both a software and a Tofino-based hardware switch. Our evaluation shows that a stateless version of Cheetah guarantees PCC, has negligible packet processing overheads, and can support load balancing mechanisms that reduce the flow completion time by a factor of <inline-formula> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$2-3 \times $ </tex-math></inline-formula>.

Analysis of bending-twisting coupling in angle-ply laminates

The purpose of the present study is the evaluation of the bending-twisting coupling effect in the analysis of the DCB test by means of the analytical determination of the energy release rate of angle-ply laminated composites. The aim is to extend a previous work done by the same authors to new laminate configurations. Angle-ply laminates with symmetrical arms are analyzed, since in this case the application of a bending moment by means of the piano hinges causes a torsional rotation in each of the arms. That torsion is prevented by the hinges, due to the configuration of the test. Therefore, there is a non-uniform load distribution applied by the hinges, whose resultant is the applied load P and the resultant moment is an unknown twisting moment mt, which prevents rotation at the point of application. The resolution of the resulting system of forces and moments allows obtaining analytically the energy release rate, and analyzing the terms due exclusively to the bending-twisting coupling.

Combining plug-in devices for reconfigurable removal of trichloroethylene and heavy metal ion in aqueous solution: Application and biosafety of iron-iron sulfide and its composites

The development of artificial intelligent (AI) planning for smart water treatment and the exploration of digitizable continuous-flow fabrication platform comprising electrically operable reactions for reconfigurable contaminant removal are two important challenges in future water purification technology. Most research and development efforts as well as the investment in water purifying materials have been focusing on the dimensions, compositions, or architectures containing highly adsorptive and catalytic components for effective combinatorial contaminant removal. However, limited attempts have been made to secure a digital system for adjusting the supply of existing adsorbents and chemicals to respond to transient or nonuniform distribution of contaminant load. To utilize AI planning in a more practical manner, developing a plug-in platform is necessary for reconfigurable fabrication that enables in situ supply of different water purifying materials. Therefore, a platform suitable for handling different material architectures was constructed by selecting different operation modes of plug-in reactionware (spark ablation, droplet generation, and photon supply) to modulate the architectures of water purifying materials. First, iron-iron sulfide (Fe–FeS) was fabricated using Fe nanoparticles and thiol vapors under photoirradiation, followed by combining the resulting Fe–FeS with metal (cobalt, nickel, or palladium) nanoparticles or graphene nanosheets to enhance the trichloroethylene (from 0.135 to 0.221 h−1 in removal kinetics) or heavy metal ion (from 299 to 592 mg g−1 in adsorption capacity) removal. Finally, in vitro toxicological analyses were conducted to determine biosafety of the resulting materials. The results of cell viability and reactive oxygen species profiles indicated that further investigation is required to realize the safe-by-design concept.