Non-traditional Agricultural Exports Research Articles

The Competitiveness of Uganda’s Non-traditional Agricultural Exports: The Case of Flowers Exports

Flowers exports make a significant proportion of Uganda’s non-traditional agricultural export (NTAE) earnings. This study aimed to gain deeper insights into the extent to which the competitiveness of Uganda’s floricultural exports is associated with market distribution, commodity composition and competitiveness effect; and thus establish whether Uganda’s NTAEs are based on favourable commodity compositions, and are destined for relatively faster-growing markets. The data was extracted from the UN Comtrade database; and the base period was 2015–2018. For analysis, the study employed the Constant Market Share method that enables the identification of factors driving changes in export performance, and thus determine which factors are contributing positively or negatively to export growth. It also used the Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) index, which enabled a simple and straightforward comparison of competitiveness. The study finds that Uganda heavily relies on a single export market (Netherlands) for its earning from roses and unrooted cuttings. In the chosen base period, Uganda’s market share in the Netherlands increased by 2.4%, while that of roses’ exports declined by 9.2%. The favourable export performance of unrooted cuttings and slips were predominantly attributed to the commodity effect, which accounted for 62.9% of the export growth; while the unfavourable export performance of Uganda roses in the same base period was attributed to the competitiveness in the period (-221.6%). The results of the RCA showed that while both commodities enjoyed a comparative advantage in the base period, that of roses was steadily declining. The study was motivated by the need to increase gains from export diversification in the context of NTAEs, from the perspective of a country that predominantly relies on traditional agricultural commodities for its exports.

Non-Traditional Agricultural Export Performance in Ghana. Exporting SMEs’ Characteristics, Export Mode, and Institutions

Increasing focus of African economies, including Ghana, on non-traditional agricultural exporting (NTAE) small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to counter declining earnings from traditional exports fall short to expectation. This study investigates this gap by looking at unstructured data, and the drivers of NTAE SMEs that can enhance performance and support sector policy initiatives. The research question to be answered is: Which SME characteristics, export mode and institutions (services and finance) are positively related to export performance in the NTAE sector in Ghana? This study applied PLS SEM analysis. The drivers of significance are export knowledge, corporate governance, product development, and professional and technical support. Although building social networks and export modes were found to be significant, they negatively affected the export performance. The cost implications limit the research to a cross-sectional study. Perceived export performance was used because the respondents did not provide export statistics. Most research on NTAEs in Ghana has focused on either subsectors or SMEs. This study adds value by focusing on SMEs in the NTAE sector, providing insights to policymakers and the government for intervention and policy formulation. Government policy implications include direct investments in shipping and air freight, tax rebates, concessions, and access to finance for NTAE SMEs. Managerial implications show that knowledge of export processes, export market regulations, and international consumer preferences is essential

Following the Water Uphill? The Spread of Blueberry Cultivation to the Mountains of Áncash, Peru / ¿Siguiendo el agua cuesta arriba? La expansión del cultivo del arándano en la sierra de Áncash, Perú

jlag Perspectives Landscape observers in Peru’s Áncash region have been concerned for over a decade about the impact of climate change on the shrinking glaciers of the Cordillera Blanca and the Santa River watershed (Bury et al., 2013). However, the Santa River valley, which is known locally as Callejón de Huaylas and is one of Peru’s most important Inter-Andean valleys, has been experiencing a second dramatic landscape change that has gone mostly unnoticed by outsiders. It has rapidly become covered by huge swathes of whiteplasticusedintheconstructionofhigh tunnels for blueberry production (Figure 1).1 Primarily for export, this production is transformingresourceuseaswellasvalleyaesthet ics ,withimpactsfordiversesectorsofsociety inÁncash.Furthermore,itsuggestspotential new trends in global agro-exports. CommercialblueberryproductioninPeru began in 2007 and has expanded rapidly throughanationalcampaignsince2012:from 50 hectares (ha) cultivated in 2012 to more than 18,000 ha in 2022 (Cordano, 2016; León Following the Water Uphill? The Spread of Blueberry Cultivation to the Mountains of Áncash, Peru¿Siguiendo el agua cuesta arriba? La expansión del cultivo del arándano en la sierra de Áncash, Perú Martha G. Bell Pontifical Catholic University of Peru Karl S. Zimmerer Pennsylvania State University and CEFE-University of Montpellier Odolin Saturnino Rodríguez Tinoco Institución Educativa 86648, Santo Domingo de Guazman - Yungay JOURNAL OF LATIN AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY 22(1), 1–11 Carrasco,2023).Blueberriesarecurrentlythe agro-export crop that generates the highest sales. In 2022, sales totaled US$ 1,435 million, approximately 14 percent of Peru’s total agro-export sales (Agraria.pe, 2023). Peru has also become the world’s leading exporter of the fruit (freshfruitportal.com, 2023), producing more than 276,000 metric tons in 2022 (Agraria.pe, 2023). This has corresponded to the larger expansion of “non-traditional agricultural exports” (NTAEs) across Latin America, which, beginning in the 1990s, saw production booms of grapes, avocados, mangos, asparagus, and other crops along Peru’s desert coast. This growth has depended on large-scale agribusiness and government investments in irrigation projects and “technified” agriculture as well as inexpensive labor and new trade and legal arrangements (Williams & Murray, 2019; Lombana, 2020; Crespi, 2022). Peru’s blueberry boom depends on distinctive varietal management and new geographic strategies for production. In 2023, the most prevalent blueberry varieties included Emerald and Biloxi, which are extra-large, firm, sweet, crunchy varieties that can survive cold storage and shipping (Ilyas, 2023). These are so-called zero or low chill varieties, which require reduced hours at cool temperatures (below 7 oC) compared to other varieties, and are thus suitable for Peru’s warmer temperatures (especially on the coast but also in the CalleFigure 1. Blueberries cultivated in high tunnels near Caraz, Áncash, Peru (Photograph by Marcia Castromonte, February 17, 2023). 2 Journal of Latin American Geography jón de Huaylas). In addition to these properties , which are common to agro-exports, blueberry expansion has required transforming new geographic spaces by subsuming previously “underutilized” lands into the agro-export model. While in previous agro-export growth these spaces have typicallybeenlocatedonPeru ’sdesertcoast,now itishigheraltitudezones,andspecificallythe inter-Andean valleys of Áncash, La Libertad, Cajamarca, and Piura—which are characterized by more abundant surface water, gentle rainfall, absence of frosts, and available land and labor—that are targeted for blueberry production (Cordano, 2016; Servicio Nacional de Sanidad Agraria del Perú, 2019). We focusourdescriptiononalltheseproduction factors, with special attention to the role of water availability in the upslope spaces. The cultivation of blueberries in Inter-Andean valleys has mainly occurred near the city of Caraz, which is located in the relatively wide, flat-bottomed Santa River valley known as Callejón de Huaylas. The Santa River is fed by glacier meltwater flowing down from the Cordillera Blanca, which contains some of the most important tropical glaciers in the world. During the twentieth century, agriculturalists in the Caraz area, including indigenous peasant communities (Comunidades Campesinas) as well as smallholders and medium-size farms, used irrigation to grow products for national markets. These included purple-kernel maize (maíz morado) used for the chicha morada beverage , Andean amaranth (kiwicha), artichokes, green beans, snow peas, and flowers. The surge of blueberry producFigure 2. High tunnels for blueberry growing in the valley bottom of Callejón de Huaylas, Áncash...

The determinants of non-traditional agricultural exports’ growth in Ghana

The Nontraditional Agricultural Exports (NTAE) sub-sector is a key contributor to agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) in several developing countries. It has the potential to create jobs and contribute to enhancing food and nutrition security, hence an important pillar to the economies of several countries including Ghana. This study, therefore, examines the factors driving the growth of nontraditional agricultural exports in Ghana using an Autoregressive Distributive Lag (ARDL) model. The study was based on secondary data from the World Development Indicators (WDI) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The study identified real GDP to be a significant determinant of NTAE’s growth in both contemporaneous and lag forms. Other variables including inflation, gross capital formation and foreign direct investment influence NTAE’s growth through their lag values. Exchange rate, inflation and RGDP significantly determine the growth of NTAEs in the long-run. The study further identified a co-integrating relationship between NTAE and other explanatory variables. The Error Correction Model showed an adjustment speed of 0.41, indicating that 41% adjustment will occur within the first year and it will take 2.4 years for the system to return to equilibrium in the long-run. Based on the findings, the study recommends that Ghana Export Promotion Authority (GEPA) adopts promotional strategies including providing incentive packages to farmers, exhibitions and trade fairs to curtail the declining trend in the growth of the NTAE’s sector. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) should educate farmers on the use of acceptable agronomical practices in the production field. Lastly, Ghana Investment Promotion Center (GIPC) and MoFA should collaborate to identify strategic areas for domestic support and foreign direct investment in the NTAE’s sub-sector to ensure it grows and contributes towards socio-economic development in Ghana.

An Assessment of the Effectiveness of Local Institutions in the Production of Exportable Pineapple in Ghana

Pineapple is one of the important non-traditional agricultural export commodities that contributes immensely to the progress of Ghana. This study assesses the effectiveness of the local institutions in the production of pineapple for export. The study achieves this by investigating how well the Local Institutions perform their functions; both statutory and non-statutory functions based on how the institutions perceive each other’s functional performance. Primary data on the functions were obtained from thirty (30) identified local institutions categorised into five (5) namely Local Administration, Local Government, Service Organisation, Membership Organisations and Private Businesses. The data obtained were analysed using the Chi-square method of analyses. Constraints in achieving high institutional performance of the Local Institutions were ranked and the Kendall concordance coefficient was used to test the extent of agreement between the constraints. The results of the study showed that about 63 percent of the selected Local Institutions were found to be effective in the performance of their functions. The linkage among the Local Institutions was fairly strong; only 33 percent of the institutions were found to relate strongly with others. Out of the strongly linked institutions, 50 percent were found to be among the institutions that were found to be effective in the performance of their functions. Inadequate finance and poor logistics were identified as the most pressing constraints that limited the achievement of high performance of the Local Institutions. In order to be effective in performance of functions, Local Institutions need to develop innovative ways of networking with others in the pineapple subsector, especially farmers. In this way, good agricultural practices would be assured and increased production for export will be sustained.

Determinants of trade flow of some selected non-traditional agricultural export commodities in Nigeria

This study analysed the determinants of trade flow of some selected non-traditional agricultural export commodities in Nigeria, for the period 2007 to 2017. The objective of the study was to analyse the factors that determine the export of these commodities. The study used trade data of thirty-six importing countries of these commodities around the world. The secondary data used was sourced from various institutions’ databases. A balanced panel data from 36 countries for the years 2007-2017 were used with one dependent variable and ten explanatory variables (a total of n=396, N=36, and T=11); all variables were expressed in natural logarithm. The gravity estimation model was used in data analysis. The Hausman test was used in model selection and the test rejected the null hypothesis (random effects were efficient). Therefore, the fixed effects model was used in the gravity model results’ interpretation. The gravity model results indicate that Nigeria’s export of non-traditional commodities (classified as HS12 in the United Nations International Trade Statistics) follows the basic gravity model apriori expectations, implying that bilateral trade flows will increase in proportion to the trading partner’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and decrease in proportion to the distance involved.The level of openness of Nigeria’s economy and that of the importing countries were major determinants of trade flow of Nigeria’s HS12 commodity exports. This variable carried the expected positive sign for both Nigeria and its trading Partners and was also statistically significant at the 5% level. However, the real exchange rate variable was not a major determinant of HS12 commodity trade. The distance variable was statistically significant indicating the need for regional trade expansion. The dummy variable of the trading partner being an African country was positive and a significant factor in the determinants of the HS12 commodities. However, colonial or official language ties were negatively signed and significant, implying that this was not a major contributor to trade in these commodities. The study recommends that favorable import and export promotion policies and trade openness to boost growth in the quantity of non-traditional exports should form part of government trade policies; and Nigeria should also take advantage of the proposed African Free Trade Area considering the gains she stands to make through proximity in distance.

Agriculture in Southeast Asia: Rethinking contemporary issues using sociology of gender and family

This article provides an overview of how agricultural development and structural changes affects women in Southeast Asia. By employing critical literature review, it enumerates how global agriculture can be characterized as under a modern capitalist system of production by looking at trends on labor and distress migration, scientific and technological innovations (STIs), and intensification of non-traditional agricultural exports (NTAEs). Following this, it makes a case for Southeast Asia’s ASEAN4 (Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia) explaining how the conditions of women farmers should be explored further, not just in a developmental lens but in sociology of gender and family approaches. The article then discusses regional works about masculinization and feminization, engendered resistance, agency and multiplicity of identities, and intra-household relations. Towards the conclusion, it emphasizes points on challenging the terms “farmer” and “feminization,” reconsidering regional contexts, examining the family’s intra-household relationship, scrutinizing the position of the local state, and ways to move forward.

The impact of traditional and non-traditional agricultural exports on the economic growth of Peru: a short- and long-run analysis

The impact of traditional and non-traditional agricultural exports on the economic growth of Peru: a short- and long-run analysis

Reconsidering non-traditional export agriculture and household food security: A case study in rural Guatemala.

As the production of non-traditional export (NTX) crops by smallholder households in developing countries expands, there is a compelling need to understand the potential effects of this type of agricultural production on household food security and nutrition. We use two household surveys with a sample of 52 households, interviews, and focus groups to examine whether smallholder farmers who produce broccoli for export in a rural Guatemalan community have different household food security than farmers in the same community who are still growing traditional maize and bean crops. We explore and compare the food security status of broccoli farmers (adopters) and traditional farmers (non-adopters) across four dimensions of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability. Adopters earned significantly more income (40%) than non-adopters, but higher incomes did not coincide with improvements in food availability, food access, or food utilization. Results indicate that adopters and non-adopters alike struggle with access to food, while the intensity of broccoli production may be undermining the ability of local agricultural systems to naturally control pests and regulate nutrients. More systematic approaches to food security assessment, especially those that consider all four dimensions of food security, are needed to better target interventions designed to alleviate food insecurity among rural smallholders.

LABOR EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN COFFEE PRODUCTION IN SOUTHERN LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC

General debate on the issue of labor employment is related to employment opportunity, pattern of labor employment, the contribution to labor employment, and the impact of labor employment on livelihoods. This paper examines labor employment opportunities through different ethnic perspectives, especially labor employment opportunities in coffee production, a non-traditional agricultural export (NTAE) product, as a case. The objectives of this study are to investigate the pattern of labor employment and to examine the impacts of the employment on the labor livelihoods. Qualitative method was applied to collect empirical data in four villages and five coffee planter-exporter companies in Pakxong District, Champasak Province, and Lao Ngam District, Salavanh Province, Lao PDR. Stakeholder consultation was held in relation to promotion of NTAE. Data analysis for this paper includes thematic analysis and narrative method. Findings show that there are many patterns of labor employment in coffee production: daily paid employment, monthly paid employment, and contracting employment. Wage laborers are from different ethnic groups who live in the same village, villages from outside, nearby villages, districts in the same province, and other provinces. Generally, the employment provides laborer with benefits. The laborers receive wage income and other additional benefits from employment in coffee production. The laborers benefit the most from a monthly salary and contracted employment compared to daily paid employment. The monthly paid employment secures employment status, provides additional benefits including welfare schemes such as medical care, accommodation, food provision, and telecommunication fees. The laborers, however, prefer to work as daily labor which provides incentive and is flexible for both the laborers and employers. In addition, migrant laborers experienced some negative impacts on their livelihood while working in a coffee garden such as working long hours, changing living style, and conflict with colleague workers and employers. The study suggests that related public and private agencies have to work closely with the farmers to regulate their workers’ employment conditions to be in line with the national labor code of conduct.

‘Discovery’ of non-traditional agricultural exports in Latin America: diverging pathways through learning and innovation

ABSTRACTDiversification of exports plays a critical role in economic growth and development, especially for countries endowed with natural resources. Successful cases often take advantage of a so-called natural resource knowledge idiosyncrasy, a unique combination of factor endowments and technological capabilities in a given natural environment. While building capabilities is fundamental, identification and exploitation of ‘windows of opportunity’ in the global market is of particular importance in establishing successful export industries. By examining four cases of non-traditional agricultural export products – cut flowers (Colombia and Ecuador) and blueberries (Chile and Argentina) – this paper identifies how the ‘self-discovery’ process of pioneers shapes the distinctive pathways through interacting with global, local and natural conditions using the adapted framework of functions of innovation systems.

Exploring mechanisms of food insecurity in indigenous agricultural communities in Guatemala: a mixed methods study

The country of Guatemala has one of the highest rates of chronic child malnutrition in the world, which primarily affects the rural, indigenous Maya population. In this study we explore the apparent paradox of endemic food insecurity and child malnutrition coexisting in Maya communities alongside a predominance of agricultural land holdings and food production. A mixed methods design explored food availability and access in a rural indigenous agricultural community, as compared to a nearby urban indigenous community. Structured surveys in both open-air markets and corner stores examined price, quality, and availability of foods. Structured household surveys examined land ownership, crop production, perceptions of food security, and the diversity of children’s diets. Key informant interviews with local farmers clarified findings related to land holdings and farming patterns. Children’s diets demonstrated a lack of diversity, and were especially deficient in dairy, flesh foods, eggs, and vitamin A-rich foods. Food insecurity was highly prevalent, with limited availability of, and access to, nutritionally diverse foods. In particular, the expansion of nontraditional agricultural exports (NTAEs) reduced food availability by displacing subsistence crops. Poor returns on investment for NTAEs limited the available cash for food purchasing, further exacerbating poor diets. Food availability was further reduced by infrequent access to open-air markets in the rural setting as compared to the urban setting, with high risk of food spoilage. As a result much food purchasing was of low-cost, low-quality processed food which, unlike higher-quality fresh foods, were equally affordable and available in both the rural and the urban environment. The proliferation of NTAEs and commoditized foods reduce dietary diversity and displace the production and consumption of fresh, nutritious foods, even in rural communities devoted primarily to food production. Rural agricultural communities in Guatemala therefore bear many resemblances to the urban “food deserts” of higher-income countries.

Using Functions of Innovation Systems to Understand the Successful Emergence of Non-traditional Agricultural Export Industries in Developing Countries: Cases from Ethiopia and Chile

Development of new export industries provides an important stimulus for economic growth and structural transformation in developing countries. In any country, numerous new export industries, whether initiated by the government or private sector, are always being pursued, but only a few become successful due to inherent uncertainties in new activities. In this paper, we adopted the functions of innovation systems framework to understand the process of system building through examination of the successful emergence of two non-traditional agricultural export industries in developing countries, namely the Ethiopian flower industry and the Chilean salmon industry to identify effective policy measures in the early phases of development.

The 'Special Relationship' and the Challenge of Diversifying a Sugar Economy: Cuban Exports of Fruits and Vegetables to the United States, 1902-1962

For almost sixty years of the 20th century Cuban exports to the United States enjoyed certain advantages not available to any other sovereign country: at least a 20% reduction in import duties on items subject to a US tariff and privileged access to the US market for its main export, cane sugar. Given this competitive advantage, as well as its comparative advantage of climate and geographic proximity, this paper considers the degree to which Cuba was able to diversify its agricultural exports. The 1902 Reciprocity Convention provided the incentive for the development of a number of non-traditional fruit and vegetable exports geared to the US market. In less than two decades, Cuba became almost the sole foreign supplier of pineapples and grapefruit. Moreover, after the 1934 Reciprocal Trade Agreement which granted Cuba even more favorable duty concessions during the US winter season, it became the dominant foreign supplier of vegetables such as cucumbers, okra and eggplant, and an important source of fresh tomatoes. Further, in the post-World War II period, in most years the value of Cuban exports of processed fruit to the US exceeded that of fresh fruit. Yet, Cuban exports of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables to the US rarely comprised 4% of total Cuban exports. The concentration of land, labor, capital and agricultural research on sugar cane, along with external factors -- such as increasing US domestic production of similar crops and competition from Mexico -- served as a powerful disincentive to the sustained growth of non-traditional agricultural exports.

Coupled social and ecological outcomes of agricultural intensification in Costa Rica and the future of biodiversity conservation in tropical agricultural regions

Tropical ecosystem conversion to agriculture has caused widespread habitat loss and created fragmented landscapes composed of remnant forest patches embedded in a matrix of agricultural land uses. Non-traditional agricultural export (NTAE) crops such as pineapple are rapidly replacing multiuse landscapes characterized by a diverse matrix of pasture and smallholder crops with intensive, large-scale, monoculture plantations. Using an interdisciplinary approach, we conduct a case study to examine the coupled social and ecological implications of agricultural intensification in this region, with larger application to regions experiencing similar patterns of agricultural intensification. Guided by frameworks from both political and landscape ecology, we: (1) describe the social and economic implications of pineapple expansion, specifically the concentration of land, labor and financial resources, (2) quantify pineapple cultivation's spatial characteristics, and (3) assess the effects of pineapple expansion on surrounding forest ecosystems, on the agricultural matrix and on biodiversity conservation. Our results indicate that pineapple production concentrates land, labor, and financial resources, which has a homogenizing effect on the agricultural economy in the study region. This constrains farm-based livelihoods, with larger implications for food security and agricultural diversity. Landscape ecology analyses further reveal how pineapple production simplifies and homogenizes the agricultural matrix between forest patches, which is likely to have a negative effect on biodiversity. To offset the effects of pineapple expansion on social and environmental systems, we recommend developing landscape level land use planning capacity. Furthermore, agricultural and conservation policy reform is needed to promote landscape heterogeneity and economic diversity within the agricultural sector. Our interdisciplinary research provides a detailed examination of the social and ecological impacts of agricultural intensification in a tropical landscape, and offers recommendations for improvement relevant not only to our study region but to the many other tropical landscapes currently undergoing non-traditional agricultural export driven agricultural intensification.

Development Aid, Agricultural Value Chains And Farmers’ Benefits: The Case of Vanilla Growers in Kasese, Uganda

This article assesses farmers’ benefits from a donor-funded programme that promoted non-traditional agricultural export crops, specifically vanilla and hot pepper. Data was obtained from a survey of 125 famers from eight farmers’ associations working with a Dutch NGO and trading company, four focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Kasese Smallholder Income and Investment Programme used a value chain approach helping farmers at various stages. Farmers benefited from input loans, agricultural skills, extension services and a market for their produce. Vanilla producers were affected by the persistent drop in the crop prices, which affected the sustainability of associations beyond the Kasese Smallholder Income and Investment Programme. Stronger famers’ associations will give more benefits; the government should therefore promote a nationwide cooperative movement and crop regulatory authorities so as to be able to help farmers sustainably.

Globalisations in a nutshell: Historical perspectives on the changing governance of the shea commodity chain in northern Ghana

Pre-colonial patterns of trade in West Africa included exchanges of shea in periodic local and regional markets. The collection, processing and marketing of shea products in such markets continues to be predominantly by women to both meet subsistence needs, and exchange of surpluses. In the early part of the 20 th century, the British colonial administration considered the possibilities of starting large-scale exports of shea kernels to Europe. Multiple colonial initiatives to develop the global trade were not successful due to a composite of factors. Contemporary patterns of production, trade and regulation are contrasted in the context of globalisation in the post-independence era. The government of Ghana has progressively reinforced its ambitions to expand the shea nut trade as part of the state’s portfolio of major non-traditional agricultural export commodities. This policy is embedded within the (now) dominant orthodoxy of neo-liberalism, which privileges monetized production systems and private over public regulation. Historically and culturally-embedded patterns of shea production and trade by women in northern Ghana may now be challenged by the emergence of new processing technologies, the emergence of an oligopolistic global commodity chain and the anticipated continued growth in global demand for cocoa butter equivalents. Nevertheless, the cumulative impacts of increasing commercialisation and world market integration at the national and local level in Ghana, and other West African producer countries, are still unknown. There are risks, however, that this process may result in social differentiation, changes in household consumption patterns and loss of livelihoods, particularly for women.

Globalisations in a nutshell: Historical perspectives on the changing governance of the shea commodity chain in northern Ghana

Pre-colonial patterns of trade in West Africa included exchanges of shea in periodic local and regional markets. The collection, processing and marketing of shea products in such markets continues to be predominantly by women to both meet subsistence needs, and exchange of surpluses. In the early part of the 20^th century, the British colonial administration considered the possibilities of starting large-scale exports of shea kernels to Europe. Multiple colonial initiatives to develop the global trade were not successful due to a composite of factors. Contemporary patterns of production, trade and regulation are contrasted in the context of globalisation in the post-independence era. The government of Ghana has progressively reinforced its ambitions to expand the shea nut trade as part of the state’s portfolio of major non-traditional agricultural export commodities. This policy is embedded within the (now) dominant orthodoxy of neo-liberalism, which privileges monetized production systems and private over public regulation. Historically and culturally-embedded patterns of shea production and trade by women in northern Ghana may now be challenged by the emergence of new processing technologies, the emergence of an oligopolistic global commodity chain and the anticipated continued growth in global demand for cocoa butter equivalents. Nevertheless, the cumulative impacts of increasing commercialisation and world market integration at the national and local level in Ghana, and other West African producer countries, are still unknown. There are risks, however, that this process may result in social differentiation, changes in household consumption patterns and loss of livelihoods, particularly for women.

Connecting the dots

PurposeMost research on networks of exporting SMEs has been conducted in developed economies. The present paper aims to apply this concept to a developing economy arguing that there is a combination of internal firm factors (human and physical capital, social and management team networks) that will lead to higher (past) performance in terms of firm size given different contextual factors (such as institutions and supply chain complexity).Design/methodology/approachTen SME case studies are analysed in the non‐traditional agricultural export (NTAE) sector in Ghana.FindingsThe findings suggest that performance is highest for those SMEs where the CEO has received tertiary level education and has export experience for over five years, which export directly (no use of traders), make extensive use of Ghana's export institutions, use export contracts and are members of SME associations.Research limitations/implicationsPolicy makers in Sub Saharan governments in general and Ghanaian government officials in particular can use these findings to focus their policy on these types of SMEs.Originality/valueWhereas most research on networks of exporting SMEs has been conducted in developed economies, this paper seeks to apply this concept to a developing economy. Policy makers and officials in government can use the findings to focus their policy on the types of SMEs where performance is highest.

Growth and Competitiveness of Non-Traditional Agricultural Exports in Zambia

This study investigates the determinants of growth and competitiveness of Zambia’s flower exports to three main export destinations—the Netherlands, the UK and Germany—using annual time series data from 1990 to 2010. Acknowledging that time series data are often nonstationary, leading to misleading economic analyses, the study employs cointegration and error correction models to establish factors of conditions growth and competitiveness of Zambia’s flower exports. The results show that supply and competitiveness of flower exports are positively influenced by domestic flower production, real GDP and population of importing countries, relative depreciation of domestic currency and world export prices. In contrast, exports from competing countries and real interest rates were found to negatively influence flower exports. This seems to suggest that monetary policies and exchange rate regimes that promote trade are required for enhancing and fostering an environment favorable for flower production and exporting. In addition, the replacement of Zambia’s flower exports by those from other countries dictates that there must be a quality improvement so the country’s exports can compete favorably with those from other countries.