Non-tariff Trade Barriers Research Articles

Is the proliferation of private standards acting as a non-tariff trade barrier in agrifood trade? Evidence from Chilean grape exports

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to describe and analyze the impacts that the recent proliferation of private and overlapping standards is having in the trade of agricultural products from developing countries.Design/methodology/approachIn a first stage industry experts in the Chilean fresh fruit trading industry were interviewed to understand the perceived impact that private standards are imposing in the industry. These interviews allowed to identify the market case study, table grapes, the landscape of private standards and their prevalence in different countries. In a second stage, a gravity trade model for trade in table grapes was estimated, with a focus on the more stringent countries identified by experts in the first stage.FindingsWe show evidence that the proliferation of private standards required by large European retailers has diverted trade away from more stringent countries that require more certifications (and into less stringent European markets). We also show that the costs of these additional certifications have been shared by trading partners, via an increase in direct sales, as opposed to consignment (the traditional marketing mode), which is associated with higher prices.Research limitations/implicationsThe impacts of the recent proliferation of private and overlapping standards in international trade needs to be better understood both by the legal and economic literature. While the use of private standards has been growing since the 1990s, there is a recent trend of large European retailers imposing their own and overlapping standards that needs to be better understood to inform policy.Originality/valueWhile there is a thin literature on the impact of private standards on trade, most of this has studied the effects of the now de facto mandatory GlobalGAP certification. However, there is a recent trend by large European retailers of demanding their own private certifications, together with other already existing overlapping private standards. This study describes and analyzes the impacts of this rather new trend.

Trade and competitiveness of African sugar exports

IntroductionSugar ranks among the most widely consumed, traded, sensitive, and protected commodities on the global and intra-regional stages. Recent developments in the sugar industry, inclusive of price distortions in the global sugar market, the liberalization of the European sugar sector, and the globalization of international agricultural trade, have amplified the need to comprehend the evolution of competitiveness in African sugar exports. Consequently, this study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the patterns, trends, and shifts in the inter- and intra-regional competitiveness of African sugar exports.MethodsThis paper employed the Normalized Revealed Comparative Advantage (NRCA) index and the Harris-Tzavalis panel-data unit-root test to assess the stability and structural changes in the competitive patterns of sugar exports for 34 African countries. The analysis is based on panel data spanning the period from 2001 to 2021.Results and discussionThe NRCA indices unveil certain dynamics and shifts in the competitiveness of country-specific sugar exports. Overall, the number of countries exhibiting competitive sugar exports has marginally increased, rising from 14 in 2001 to 17 in 2021. However, only eight African countries, predominantly from the southern region, have consistently maintained competitiveness in both the global and intra-regional markets throughout the entire analysis period. A significant portion of sugar exports from African countries has remained non-competitive on the global market, with a select few oscillating between periods of comparative advantage and disadvantage. Notably, the North African nations of Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt have transitioned from a position of comparative disadvantage to one of comparative advantage. At the intra-regional level, the presence of tariff and non-tariff trade barriers, including tariff escalations and trade embargoes, has rendered sugar exports non-competitive. These barriers augment the challenges faced by producers in other African nations seeking to exploit economies of scale.ConclusionThe sustained competitiveness of sugar exports from the Southern African region to other African regions underscores the significance and increasing impact of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in bolstering the competitiveness and development of the sugar industry.

The Impact of Participating in the Asean Economic Community (AEC) on the Cross-Border Trade at Singkhon Border Pass, Prachuap Khiri Khan Province

Purpose: The aim of this study is to examine the behavior of Thai and Burmese traders, the types of products and services used in the Singkhon border pass, and the challenges and solutions for cross-border trade between Thailand and Myanmar. Theoretical framework: The study is based on a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative data collection and qualitative data gathering through interviews and observations. It draws upon relevant theories and concepts from the fields of international trade, cross-cultural business, and supply chain management. Design/methodology/approach: TheData was collected from 250 participants in the outside and Singkhon markets using accidental sampling. Quantitative data was obtained through surveys or questionnaires to gather demographic information and insights into trading behaviors. Qualitative data was gathered through in-depth interviews and observations with government agencies and private sector stakeholders involved in cross-border trade. This combination of methods provides a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Findings: The results indicate that the majority of the sample group consisted of female entrepreneurs aged between 30-45 years in the Had Yai market. In the outside market, a higher age group was observed. The traders were predominantly Buddhist or Muslim individuals from Songkhla province, with lower levels of education. Retail business was the main activity, with clothing and consumer goods being the most traded products. The primary trading language was Burmese, followed by Thai and Chinese. Challenges in trading included exchange rate fluctuations, non-tariff trade barriers, and transportation infrastructure issues. Proposed solutions involve improving Thailand's transportation infrastructure and connecting it with Myanmar's infrastructure. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of cross-border trade dynamics between Thailand and Myanmar and provide valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders in the field. Research, Practical & Social implications: The study has significant research, practical, and social implications. From a research perspective, it contributes to the existing body of knowledge on cross-border trade between Thailand and Myanmar, specifically focusing on the behavior of Thai and Burmese traders, the types of products and services traded, and the challenges faced in this context. The findings shed light on the dynamics of cross-border trade and provide insights into the specific factors influencing trade activities in the Singkhon border pass. Originality/value: The value of the study lies in its originality and contribution to the field of cross-border trade research. While there is existing literature on international trade and border crossings, this study focuses specifically on the Singkhon border pass between Thailand and Myanmar. By examining the behavior of traders, the types of products and services traded, and the challenges faced in this particular context, the study provides unique insights and fills a gap in the literature.

Indonesia-US Trade Barrier: A Study on the Halal Certification of Imported Chicken Leg Quarters

This study discussed the background of Indonesia's non-tariff trade barrier implementation against imports of chicken legs from the United States (US) through halal certification. As WTO members, the two countries are bound by the rules and agreements of the WTO, one of which is trade liberalization related to the elimination of various kinds of trade barrier including non-tariff trade barrier such as halal certification. The application of halal certification by Indonesia to imports of chicken legs has prevented imported chicken legs from the US from entering the Indonesian market, even though they have a lower price. This study uses a mercantilism approach in the global political economy, namely the theory of non-tariff trade barrier from Thomas Oatley. The method used by the researcher was a qualitative research method with the type of case study and data collection techniques are carried out through literature study and interviews with related informants. This study concludes that there were two considerations behind the implementation of non-tariff trade barrier by Indonesia to the import of chicken legs from the US through halal certification, namely the consideration of a society-centered approach to protect public confidence, protect producers, and domestic livestock workers and considerations that are state-centered in the context of handling the economic crisis in the livestock sector and saving the state's foreign exchange expenditure.

The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP): an analysis of its potential benefits for China

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a mega-regional free trade agreement aimed to remove tariff and non-tariff trade barriers, increase trade facilitation, liberalise investment, and promote global value chains among the member countries. The study aims to know the importance of RCEP regarding trade, foreign direct investment and other economic affairs for China and its potential economic benefits for members. It has provided for a 90% tariff reduction on trade among its 15 members. It can potentially increase trade and FDI inflow to China through the trade and FDI creation effects. Establishing a business-friendly market in the Asia Pacific region and the tariff reduction provisions of this agreement have many advantages for the Chinese economy. Among its members, China is the leading economic power. Therefore, she will get maximum economic benefits as, according to statistical simulations, it will increase her international trade, exports, services, and FDI inflow. The current 2.2% tariff imposed on Chinese exports in the RCEP market will be decreased to 0.4%. The expected economic profit to China from this agreement is 214 billion dollars, equal to 2.2% of its GDP and a 13.4% increase in FDI inflow.

Murky trade waters: Regional tariff commitments and non-tariff measures in Africa

In several African regions, economic integration has successfully reduced tariff protection by freezing the opportunity to raise applied tariffs against fellow integration partners above those promised. We examine whether these regional tariff commitments have come at the expense of adverse side-effects on the prevalence of non-tariff trade barriers. Comparing the effects of applied tariff overhangs – the difference between MFN bound tariffs and effectively applied tariffs – towards all vis-à-vis African trading partners on SPS and TBT notifications of 35 African WTO members from 2001-2017, we find no general relationship between tariff overhangs and import regulation in our preferred model setting. Larger tariff overhangs specific to intra-African trade relations, however, increase the probability of SPS measures and TBT and thereby contrast with the common assumption of the former functioning as a flexible policy valve. We see the nature of Africa’s formal trade relations as an explanation for these findings. While regional tariff commitments have not only significantly moved African countries away from multilateral commitments, they have also sharply reduced their tariff policy space within Africa, thus seemingly leaving regulatory policy as one of the few legitimate options to level the playing field with the by far closest market competitors.

Conflict Management inside EAEU to Preserve Its Forum

Eurasian Economic Union members: The Eurasian Economic Union consists of five member states: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Armenia.
 What is the Eurasian Economic Union?
 The Eurasian Economic Union (EEU or EAEU is a project for the economic integration of the former Soviet region. Its formal objectives are to create a common market much like the European Union (EU). There are four targets of this forum, i.e:1) coordinating economic policy, 2.) eliminating non-tariff trade barriers,3) harmonizing regulations, and 4).modernizing the economies of its five member states. While the whole population of EEU member states is estimated 180 million people.
 The EEU has some institutions inside it, i.e: the Eurasian Economic Commission in Moscow as its regulatory body, and a Court of the Eurasian Economic Union based in Minsk. The Commission's power is limited. Member states disagreeing with its judgments can appeal to other bodies, and the Commission has no power to bring a member state before the Court in a case of non-compliance. Disputes are often resolved bilaterally rather than via EAEU institutions.
 Bureaucratic forms of the EU have not been fully copied by the EAEU, which seems a slow phase of its development so far. This is might be caused by EAEU GDP in 2019 being the majority Russian economy (87%). Russia is by far the largest member state and dominates the Union. This domination means that Russia is easily able to act unilaterally within the union [1].

Trade negotiations between Taiwan and the United States

In November 2022, representatives from Taiwan and the United States took early steps towards beginning negotiations over a trade agreement that would focus on lifting non-tariff trade barriers. It is possible that an agreement will be signed by the end of 2023. If a deal is reached, however, ratification by both countries, and then implementation, will take years longer. A trade deal would serve as an additional pillar of the US–Taiwan relationship and would complement the increasing cooperation between Washington and Taipei on technology issues.

Enabling Trade in Gene-Edited Produce in Asia and Australasia: The Developing Regulatory Landscape and Future Perspectives.

Genome- or gene-editing (abbreviated here as ‘GEd’) presents great opportunities for crop improvement. This is especially so for the countries in the Asia-Pacific region, which is home to more than half of the world’s growing population. A brief description of the science of gene-editing is provided with examples of GEd products. For the benefits of GEd technologies to be realized, international policy and regulatory environments must be clarified, otherwise non-tariff trade barriers will result. The status of regulations that relate to GEd crop products in Asian countries and Australasia are described, together with relevant definitions and responsible regulatory bodies. The regulatory landscape is changing rapidly: in some countries, the regulations are clear, in others they are developing, and some countries have yet to develop appropriate policies. There is clearly a need for the harmonization or alignment of GEd regulations in the region: this will promote the path-to-market and enable the benefits of GEd technologies to reach the end-users.

Os impactos das barreiras não-tarifárias na internacionalização das empresas da Serra Gaúcha

Companies look to the internationalization process to increase profits, reduce costs and risks, take advantage of economies of scale, among other benefits. However, during this process, the company may face some difficulties, among them, non-tariff trade barriers (NTBs). In view of the above, this study assesses the impacts of NTBs on the internationalization process of exporting companies in Serra Gaúcha. Therefore, a generic qualitative study was developed, based on semi-structured interviews with ten professionals of the area. As a result, notably all companies faced NTBs during the internationalization process, with impacts on variables such as profit, time, internal processes, customer satisfaction and company competitiveness. Thus, the greater the risk presented by the product to the health and safety of the population and the more economically developed the destination country, the more severe the barriers imposed. That way, it is evident that there are different levels of barriers, some hinder the process and others totally prevent it.

An Empirical Evaluation of the Seafood Exports in the Post-WTO Regime from India and Kerala

Seafood export sector is a major trade item in the globalized trade of all commodities. However, the fishery trade sector witnessed profound changes in the post-WTO period. This is because of the use of several technical and non-tariff trade barriers, which in most cases are stipulated by the importing developed countries. India is a prominent fishery exporting country with a foreign exchange earnings of $ 6.1 billion as per January 2022. State of Kerala is having a good legacy in seafood trade and one of the major fishery’s exporting coastal states of India. The post-WTO period has witnessed many dynamics in the fishery trade both in India and Kerala. The stipulations in the areas of TBT and NTBs and other quality standards have worked as a penumbra in the seafood trade and hence have to search for the traditional to non-traditional and emerging markets with the idea of uninterrupted seafood trade flow. Hence, the article tries to unravel the issues of these in this post WTO period. The article uses the data obtained from the Marine Products Export Development Authority in the form of monthly, quarterly and annual data. Along with this it also uses data from CEPII and UN Comtrade. The result also shows that there is a change from traditional to new markets in some cases, whereas the US and EU still dominate as major importers of the seafood from India and Kerala. The Gravity model explanation is giving a clear espousal that the values under stipulations are significantly related. The instability model also authenticates that there are instabilities in varying proportions from market to market.

An expert system for insect pest population dynamics prediction

Avocado (Persea americana) production is increasing in Kenya, with both small and largeholder farming for domestic and export markets. However, one of main challenges that limit production is infestation by insect pests, notably the oriential fruit fly Bactocera dorsalis and Ceratitis spp. fruit flies, which cause direct crop losses and are indirectly responsible for non-tariff trade barriers due to stringent export requirements. Data on weekly pest trap counts were collected between September 2017 and December 2020 within orchards in avocado plantations. Fuzzy neural network (FNN) were used to model the population dynamics of B. dorsalis and Ceratitis spp. Weekly pest counts, rainfall, average temperature, relative humidity and avocado plant physiological stages were used for predictive modeling in different orchards. The performance of the resulting models was evaluated using coefficient of determination (R2), mean absolute error (MAE), mean relative approximation error (MRAE) and root mean squared error (RMSE). FNN models achieved satisfactory results in predicting the dynamics of the pests in the orchards, with most of the models obtaining R2 > 0.85. We demonstrated how FNN models can be used as predictive tools for managing and controlling fruit fly pest populations in these plantations, and how they may be suitable to predict fruit fly or other pests in similar cropping systems. Once the input variables are known, they can be loaded into the FNN models to predict field pest populations, and based on threshold values, allow for implementation of timely and adequate control measures such as the use of biopesticides.

Преференциальные торговые соглашения: теория и практика

The change in the concept of globalization of the world economy has led to serious structural changes in the global governance of international trade, as well as in the theory and practice of organizing preferential trade agreements (PTAs) between countries. At all stages of economic globalization, the main motive for the creation of the PTS was the expansion of access to foreign markets. The period of slowbalization of the world economy after the global crisis of 2008–2009 led to a further increase in trade protectionism. The role of traditional determinants in the creation of PTAs is decreasing, while the lobbying activity of exporters – transnational companies – is becoming more significant, which leads to an increase in the unevenness of benefits received by participants in international exchange. The focus of the international political economy of the PTA is shifting from traditional tariff and non-tariff trade barriers to the study of the conditions for cross-border investment, rules for the protection of intellectual property, environmental issues, and production standards. The multidimensionality of trade policy at the present stage dictates the need to revise the preferences prevailing in international trade. Trade policy covers not only cross-border exchange, but also international production. Modern PTAs are an alternative design to the WTO multilateral trade regulation, which will simplify traditional international exchange procedures. In addition, in the PTAs, some aspects of competition rules that are poorly spelled out in the WTO may be especially significant, since the risks of collusion of firms in this case may already cover several jurisdictions. An important role in understanding the political and economic nature of PTAs is played by their “distributional” consequences, when the gains of different countries from participation in the PTAs becomes uneven, which is a serious challenge for real economic integration between countries. To develop new approaches to organizing PTAs requires a clear understanding of the new nature and scale of economic globalization. Therefore, in the coming years, we will face the transformation of the designs of the already created PTAs, taking into account the new challenges that have emerged in international trade.

The Impact of Intranational Trade Barriers on Exports: Evidence from a Nationwide Vat Rebate Reform in China

It is well known that various forms of non-tariff trade barriers exist within a country. Empirically, it is difficult to measure these barriers as they can take many forms. We take advantage of a nationwide VAT rebate policy reform in China as a natural experiment to identify the existence of these intranational barriers due to local protectionism and study the impact on exports and exporting firms. As a result of shifting tax rebate burden, the reform leads to a greater incentive of the provincial governments to block the domestic flow of non-local goods to local export intermediaries. We develop an open-economy heterogenous firm model that incorporates multiple domestic regions and multiple exporting technologies, including the intermediary sector. Consistent with the model's predictions, we find that rising local protectionism leads to a reduction in interprovincial trade, more inward-looking sourcing behavior of local intermediaries, and a reduction in manufacturing exports. Analysis using micro firm-level data further shows that private companies with greater baseline reliance on export intermediaries are more adversely affected.

The Impact of Intranational Trade Barriers on Exports: Evidence from a Nationwide Vat Rebate Reform in China

It is well known that various forms of non-tariff trade barriers exist within a country. Empirically, it is difficult to measure these barriers as they can take many forms. We take advantage of a nationwide VAT rebate policy reform in China as a natural experiment to identify the existence of these intranational barriers due to local protectionism and study the impact on exports and exporting firms. As a result of shifting tax rebate burden, the reform leads to a greater incentive of the provincial governments to block the domestic flow of non-local goods to local export intermediaries. We develop an open-economy heterogenous firm model that incorporates multiple domestic regions and multiple exporting technologies, including the intermediary sector. Consistent with the model’s predictions, we find that rising local protectionism leads to a reduction in interprovincial trade, more “inward-looking” sourcing behavior of local intermediaries, and a reduction in manufacturing exports. Analysis using micro firm-level data further shows that private companies with greater baseline reliance on export intermediaries are more adversely affected.

THE ROLE OF TRADE BARRIERS IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY OF UKRAINE

The purpose of the paper is to analyze and present the role of the metallurgical industry for the economy of Ukraine and evaluate the impact of trade restrictions on the international activity of the metallurgical industry of Ukraine. As a result, this study evaluated the risks of international activities of metallurgical enterprises of Ukraine with key partner countries. Methodology. Assessment of the role of the metallurgical industry for the Ukrainian economy and the extent of the impact of trade barriers on international activities is based on several statistical data and a few methods and rules for their analysis. Their use will allow managers of metallurgical companies to form a strategy for the development of the enterprise in international markets and quickly respond to changes in the external market situation. These methods include statistical analysis, strategic segmentation, deductive and inductive methods, data comparison method, forecasting and risk assessment. Results. Per capita steel consumption growth rates have shown positive dynamics since 2010. Volatility levels of per capita steel consumption of the population is significantly lower than the growth of world GDP. Against the backdrop of slowing global GDP growth rate of steel consumption continues to grow. According to the level of consumption of steel per capita, the author singled out three stages in the development of countries. The share of exports of products of the metallurgical industry of Ukraine in 2020 amounted to 18.3% in monetary terms. This indicator is the second after the volume of exports of agricultural products. Among the total export of steel products in Ukraine 95% are engaged in export of ferrous metals, which is a raw product. The trade balance of Ukraine in the trade of metallurgical products has been decreasing since 2018 amid a decrease in export volumes and has not yet reached the level of 2016. According to the World Trade Organization, at the end of 2020, there were 3,208 non-tariff trade barriers in the world regarding trade in metals and metal products. In terms of the number of anti-dumping measures, the market of metals and metal products ranks first – 843 measures out of 2160 measures for all product groups. This tool is used by countries to protect the domestic market and as a tool in international competition. As a result of a matrix analysis of the rates and volumes of growth of Ukraine's metallurgical products in the context of partner countries and the number of introduced trade barriers, the countries with the highest risk in international activities and the most promising sales markets were identified. The Russian Federation and the United States are identified as the countries with the highest risk of the impact of trade barriers on international activities for Ukrainian metallurgical companies. The most promising sales markets are Saudi Arabia and Italy. Practical implications. With the help of the results of this paper, managers of metallurgical enterprises in Ukraine can form and adjust the strategic directions for the development of companies in the frame-work of international activities.

Research on green trade barriers in China's foreign trade

With the development of world economic globalization, China has been deeply integrated into the global economy. At the same time, with the increasing improvement of China's world economic level, the environmental problems caused by economic development are becoming more and more serious, followed by a new type of non-tariff trade barriers, that is, the formation of green trade barriers. At this stage, the serious impact of green trade barriers on China's foreign trade has greatly restricted the development of China's foreign trade. This paper briefly introduces the rise, performance and causes of green trade barriers, mainly introduces the impact of green trade barriers on China's foreign trade, and expounds the countermeasures to actively deal with green trade barriers.

Pre-emptive Breeding Against Karnal Bunt Infection in Common Wheat: Combining Genomic and Agronomic Information to Identify Suitable Parents.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the most widely grown cereal crop in the world and is staple food to half the world’s population. The current world population is expected to reach 9.8 billion people by 2050, but food production is not expected to keep pace with demand in developing countries. Significant opportunities exist for traditional grain exporters to produce and export greater amounts of wheat to fill the gap. Karnal bunt, however, is a major threat, due to its use as a non-tariff trade barrier by several wheat-importing countries. The cultivation of resistant varieties remains the most cost-effective approach to manage the disease, but in countries that are free of the disease, genetic improvement is difficult due to quarantine restrictions. Here we report a study on pre-emptive breeding designed to identify linked molecular markers, evaluate the prospects of genomic selection as a tool, and prioritise wheat genotypes suitable for use as parents. In a genome-wide association (GWAS) study, we identified six DArTseq markers significantly linked to Karnal bunt resistance, which explained between 7.6 and 29.5% of the observed phenotypic variation. The accuracy of genomic prediction was estimated to vary between 0.53 and 0.56, depending on whether it is based solely on the identified Quantitative trait loci (QTL) markers or the use of genome-wide markers. As genotypes used as parents would be required to possess good yield and phenology, further research was conducted to assess the agronomic value of Karnal bunt resistant germplasm from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT). We identified an ideal genotype, ZVS13_385, which possessed similar agronomic attributes to the highly successful Australian wheat variety, Mace. It is phenotypically resistant to Karnal bunt infection (<1% infection) and carried all the favourable alleles detected for resistance in this study. The identification of a genotype combining Karnal bunt resistance with adaptive agronomic traits overcomes the concerns of breeders regarding yield penalty in the absence of the disease.

Bridging Two Asias: Bangladesh’s Diplomacy of Regional Cooperation and Bilateral Engagements

Bangladesh's geographical location between South and Southeast Asia gives it a unique potential to act as a crossroad between the two Asian continents. As a result, Bangladesh may be able to construct a free trade zone, which would need closer links between Bangladesh and all SAARC and ASEAN countries. Bangladesh is also attempting to retain its socio-economic standing, conducive to a seamless transition to middle-income countries, through participating in regional efforts and bilateral engagement with SAARC and ASEAN countries. Even if Bangladesh's business contacts with SAARC countries have increased in recent years, trade relations with ASEAN countries have favored them principally. Furthermore, most SAARC nations have not eradicated non-tariff trade barriers. Additionally, the lengthy processes of establishing free trade agreements with ASEAN countries, becoming an ASEAN Secretarial Dialogue Partner, and complex relations with Myanmar over the Rohingya repatriation crisis can all be considered barriers to Bangladesh's ambition of becoming a bridge between two Asias.

EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF SANITARY AND PHYTOSANITARY MEASURES ON AGRICULTURAL TRADE: EVIDENCE FROM THAI FRUIT EXPORTS TO CHINA

Food safety concerns have become increasingly important challenge for agricultural trade. Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are often considered as major non-tariff trade barriers, which have surged rapidly over the recent decade. This study systematically investigates the impact of China’s SPS measures on Thai fruit exports. The panel dataset is constructed with 17 Thai fruit items for the sample period 2000–2018. Gravity equations are estimated to quantify the trade effects of SPS measures on the value of fruit exports from Thailand to China. The results from the sectoral analysis reveal that the restrictiveness of SPS measures has a positive and substantial effect on export volumes. This suggests that non-arbitrary and informative SPS requirements imposed by a large importing country would help facilitate the agricultural trade.