Non-manual Markers Research Articles

The Impact of Online Tools in Teaching Sign Language to Undergraduate University Students in Bamenda

The teaching and learning of sign language is a daunting task to 25 first year university students. They face problems remembering vocabulary, memorising signs, applying grammatical and syntactic rules, developing fluency and utilising non-manual markers. A sequential mixed method approach was employed in conducting the research. Descriptive statistics (SPSS version 17) was used to analyze quantitative data, and Huberman (2004) three analytical stages of data reduction process for qualitative data. Findings reveal that of the 25 students, 7 (28%) had difficulties with vocabulary acquisition, 5(20%) grammar and syntax, 8(32%) fluency issues and 5(20%) spatial difficulties. 3(33%) teaching techniques and downloaded digital resources were mostly exploited: www.startasl.com., Signschool App and ASL dictionary for better comprehension. Observations and questionnaires reveal that 20(80%) students who owned cell phones and practiced out of the classroom had positive outcomes whereas 5(20%) had negative impact. The above results are in line with learning expectations suggested by Vygotsky's Socio-cognitive theory.

Sign Language Analysis Using CNN Algorithm

Sign language is a rich and diverse mode of communication used by Deaf and hard of-hearing communities around the world. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of sign language, focusing on its linguistic and gestural elements. Our study encompasses an exploration of the structural properties of sign languages, their historical evolution, and the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying sign language processing. We begin by providing an overview of sign language as a natural and fully developed language with its own syntax, semantics, and phonological features. Drawing from various sign languages, including American Sign Language (ASL), British Sign Language (BSL), and others, we investigate the grammatical aspects and iconicity within signs. Furthermore, we examine the role of facial expressions and non-manual markers in conveying essential linguistic information. This analysis also delves into the historical and cultural dimensions of sign languages, shedding light on the evolution of sign languages and the influence of Deaf culture on their development. It highlights the importance of recognizing sign languages as unique cultural and linguistic entities, distinct from spoken languages. Keywords:Computer Vision; Convolutional Neural Networks; Sign Language Recognition

Chimpanzees coordinate interrogative markers to ask questions

Abstract Questions serve to initiate and continue conversation as well as to gain information and introduce new topics. In signed languages a question can be signaled by modifying the content of an utterance or by coordinating the use of nonmanual markers (e.g., the questioning look) and manual modulation (e.g., holding the sign for an extended duration). Cross-fostered chimpanzees, who use signs of American Sign Language (ASL), have demonstrated behaviors that appear in human conversation, including question-answer exchanges. The current study describes the production of questions by signing chimpanzees in a conversational context and offers a methodology for quantifying the relationship between nonmanual markers and manual modulation involved in interrogative utterances.

Indexicals under role shift in Sign Language of the Netherlands

When reporting utterances, signers often use a construction known as quotation roleshift (RS), where the signer embodies the author of the report while making use of adedicated set of non-manual markers (RS-NMMs). First (IX-1) and second (IX-2) personpronouns in those constructions are often observed to shift their meaning to refer to thereported author and the addressee. This article focuses on the behavior of these pronounsin Sign Language of the Netherlands. We designed an experiment targeting theinterpretation of IX-1 and IX-2 under RS-NMMs. Results obtained from 13 participantsshow that, while IX-2 is sensitive to RS-NMMs, the interpretation of IX-1 varies acrosssigners but is not influenced by RS-NMMs. Building upon distinctive phonological, lexicaland interpretive properties of these pronouns, we argue that the interpretation ofIX-2 behaves as a genuine shifted indexical, while IX-1 is better analyzed as a logophor.

SmartASL

Sign language builds up an important bridge between the d/Deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) and hearing people. Regrettably, most hearing people face challenges in comprehending sign language, necessitating sign language translation. However, state-of-the-art wearable-based techniques mainly concentrate on recognizing manual markers (e.g., hand gestures), while frequently overlooking non-manual markers, such as negative head shaking, question markers, and mouthing. This oversight results in the loss of substantial grammatical and semantic information in sign language. To address this limitation, we introduce SmartASL, a novel proof-of-concept system that can 1) recognize both manual and non-manual markers simultaneously using a combination of earbuds and a wrist-worn IMU, and 2) translate the recognized American Sign Language (ASL) glosses into spoken language. Our experiments demonstrate the SmartASL system's significant potential to accurately recognize the manual and non-manual markers in ASL, effectively bridging the communication gaps between ASL signers and hearing people using commercially available devices.

Non-manual Focus Markers in Turkish Sign Language

Sign languages use syntactic (fronting, doubling, clefting), manual manipulations (variation in size, length, speed, repetition), and nonmanual markers (head and eyebrow movements) to mark focus. Due to their simultaneous nature, they are well-known for using these strategies together. In this study, we examined how the focus is marked in Turkish Sign Language (TİD) in free conversations and elicited data. Both studies’ most observed nonmanual markers are head nod and eyebrow raise. We propose that these nonmanual markers are not pure focus markers since they can cooccur with focus and topic in the structures. Yet, due to information structure, they are the marker of the phonological or intonational phrases. Furthermore, the duration of focal signs could be the marker of focus, which needs further investigation.

Modality of possibility and necessity in Russian Sign Language

The article discusses manual and non-manual means used to express the modal meanings of possibility and necessity in Russian Sign Language (RSL). It is shown that due to the combination of manual signs, non-manual markers, and means of non-concatenative morphology (in particular, manner of movement), RSL is able to express subtle shades of modal semantics. RSL also clearly distinguishes between semantic domains of subject-oriented modality and epistemic modality: the first one is obligatorily expressed by manual signs while the second one is obligatorily marked by non-manuals. The article also discusses the origin of manual markers of possibility and necessity in RSL: some of them are native signs, in which the modal meaning is mainly expressed by the visual metaphor “from image to meaning”, typical for sign languages, while others are lexicalized borrowings from spoken Russian or have been derived from gestures used by hearing people. It is also shown that in the division of the sematic area of modality, RSL differs both from the surrounding spoken Russian language and a number of sign languages.

Hesitation Markers in Sign Language of the Netherlands A Corpus-Based Study

We present one of the first detailed studies on hesitation marking in a sign language. Based on the analysis of a set of monologues and dialogues from the Corpus NGT (Crasborn and Zwitserlood 2008; Crasborn, Zwitserlood, and Ros 2008), we describe the form and position of manual and nonmanual markers of hesitation in Sign Language of the Netherlands (NGT). We show that palm-up, used as a hesitation marker, is akin to a "filled pause" in spoken language, both in its formal properties and its distribution. palm-up is regularly used to mark hesitation in dialogues, but far less commonly in monologues, which we suggest indicates that palm-up is used deliberately by signers to signal a delay in signing (cf. e.g., Maclay and Osgood 1959). Other manual markers of hesitation include sign holds and breaks in signing; their form and patterning in the data suggest they are closer to "unfilled pauses" in speech. As for nonmanuals, we show that all instances of hesitation in our data are marked by a change in the direction of eye gaze, suggesting that this is a clear pragmatic cue that signers use—intentionally or not—to signal a planning problem in signing. This fits well with previous observations that eye gaze plays an important role in turn-taking regulation in sign languages (e.g., Baker 1977).

The Chin as a Domain Widener in American Sign Language (ASL)

In this paper, we investigate a grammaticalized facial expression in American Sign Language (ASL) called flat chin, which we propose functions as a general-purpose domain widener, targeting both quantificational domains as well as the scales used by gradable predicates. Our analysis allows for flat chin to target nearly any expression involving a domain, and is based on Morzycki's (2012) analysis of extreme degree modifiers. Such an analysis both expands our understanding of ASL as well Language more broadly, as few general-purpose domain wideners have yet been reported and fewer still are reported to occur as a non-manual (non-hand) markers in a sign language.

How do signers mark conditionals in German Sign Language? Insights from a Sentence Reproduction Task on the use of nonmanual and manual markers

This paper presents the results of a Sentence Reproduction Task (SRT) investigating conditional sentences in German Sign Language (DGS). We found that participants mark conditional sentences in DGS by systematically using different non-manual markers on the antecedent and the consequent. In addition, these non-manual markers were frequently used in combination with one or two manual signs. However, the manual markers were omitted in the test sentences, i.e., the input stimuli the participants were asked to reproduce. The results of our experimental study are, on the one hand, consistent with descriptions of manual and non-manual strategies used to mark conditional sentences in different unrelated sign languages. On the other hand, our findings provide new insights on the multi-layered marking of conditional sentences in DGS.

Expression of Aboutness Subject Topic Constructions in Turkish Sign Language (TİD) Narratives

In the visual-spatial modality, signers indicate old, new, or contrastive information using certain syntactic, prosodic, and morphological strategies. Even though information structure has been described extensively for many sign languages, the flow of information in the narrative discourse remains unexplored in Turkish Sign Language (TİD). This study aims to describe aboutness subject topic constructions in TİD narratives. We examined data from six adult native signers of TİD and found that TİD signers mainly used nominals for reintroduced aboutness subject topics. The optional and rare non-manual markers observed on reintroduced topics mainly included squint, brow raise, and backward head tilt. Maintained aboutness subject topics, which have higher referential accessibility, were often omitted and tracked with zero anaphora. Finally, we found that constructed action is more frequently present on the predicates of clauses with a maintained aboutness subject topic than with a reintroduced aboutness subject topic. Overall, these results indicate that the use of constructed action and nominals in aboutness subject topics correlates with referential accessibility in TİD. While the former has been observed more in maintained contexts, the latter has been observed mainly in reintroduced contexts. In addition to the syntactic and prosodic cues that may distinguish old information from new or contrastive information in narratives, we suggest that pragmatic cues such as referential accessibility may help account for the manual and non-manual articulation strategies for information structure in TİD narratives.

The Roles of Manual and non-manual Cues in Recognizing Irony in Italian Sign Language

ABSTRACT In a previous study, our research group investigated the expression of irony in Italian Sign Language (LIS) and suggested that specific manual and non-manual markers signaled the signer’s meaning and attitude. The present research aimed at expanding those findings by analyzing whether these markers are used in irony recognition and whether they are language-specific. We designed an experiment in which we compared recognition of ironic remarks out of context considering three groups of Italians: Deaf signers, hearing signers, and hearing non-signers. Our aim was to verify whether the manual and non-manual markers we associated with the expression of irony in LIS constitute a reliable cue to detect irony and whether these cues were accessible to signers more than to non-signers sharing the same cultural background. Although the ironic intent in LIS was accessible also to hearing non-signers, we found, among hearing participants, that knowledge of LIS does improve accuracy in recognizing ironic remarks in LIS. This suggests that signers’ facial expressions and bodily movements do not solve a purely affective function, but are grammaticalized, at least to some degree.

Negative concord in Russian Sign Language

In this paper, we provide the first systematic description of negative concord in Russian Sign Language (RSL). Although non-manual markers have been argued to participate in negative concord in sign languages, negative concord involving only manual signs has been shown to be much rarer. The RSL pattern thus fills this typological gap, providing one of the first clear cases of negative concord of manual signs in sign language. We show that RSL contributes important new data to the typology of negative concord known from spoken language. First, we show that RSL (like Hungarian) shows characteristics of both strict and non-strict patterns of negative concord. In neutral contexts without movement, NC items in both subject and object position require a negative licensor; on the other hand, in contexts with appropriate information structure, focused NC items may appear in specific structural positions without a licensor. These facts provide evidence against analyzing the strict/non-strict divide as a language-level property. Second, focusing on non-strict concord, we show that RSL diverges from other languages with respect to important macro-syntactic properties. In RSL, like in a number of other sign languages, negative elements may appear in a structure on the right edge. It is precisely this position that allows NC items to appear without a licensor; in this respect, RSL is a mirror-image of languages like Italian. These syntactic properties provide new evidence that structural hierarchy, not linear order, is responsible for explaining the presence or absence of a licensor in patterns of non-strict concord.

From Seed to System: The Emergence of Non-Manual Markers for Wh-Questions in Nicaraguan Sign Language

At a language’s inception, what determines which elements are taken up to build a grammar? How is the initial raw material reshaped through intergenerational language learning? We approached this question by focusing on the emergence of non-manual wh-question markers in Nicaraguan Sign Language (LSN), a young sign language. We asked whether the seeds of non-manual markers originate in the facial gestures of the hearing Nicaraguan community, and we explored the iterated process by which a form becomes selected and then systematized through generational transmission. We identified six non-manual facial and body movements produced with questions by 34 deaf LSN signers, representing three sequential age cohorts of learners, and compared them to those produced by 16 non-signing Spanish speakers. We examined the frequency and duration of each non-manual, and its temporal overlap with a question word. One non-manual, the brow furrow, was overwhelmingly represented among LSN signers, despite appearing rarely among non-signers and not being initially favored in duration or temporal overlap. With the second and third cohorts, the brow furrow emerges as a frequent and systematic marker. With each cycle of child learners, variable input was transformed into a more constrained set of grammatical forms.

Emergence or Grammaticalization? The Case of Negation in Kata Kolok

Typological comparisons have revealed that signers can use manual elements and/or a non-manual marker to express standard negation, but little is known about how such systematic marking emerges from its gestural counterparts as a new sign language arises. We analyzed 1.73 h of spontaneous language data, featuring six deaf native signers from generations III-V of the sign language isolate Kata Kolok (Bali). These data show that Kata Kolok cannot be classified as a manual dominant or non-manual dominant sign language since both the manual negative sign and a side-to-side headshake are used extensively. Moreover, the intergenerational comparisons indicate a considerable increase in the use of headshake spreading for generation V which is unlikely to have resulted from contact with Indonesian Sign Language varieties. We also attest a specialized negative existential marker, namely, tongue protrusion, which does not appear in co-speech gesture in the surrounding community. We conclude that Kata Kolok is uniquely placed in the typological landscape of sign language negation, and that grammaticalization theory is essential to a deeper understanding of the emergence of grammatical structure from gesture.

Распознавание русского и индийского жестовых языков на основе машинного обучения

In the paper, we consider recognition of sign languages (SL) with a particular focus on Russian and Indian SLs. The proposed recognition system includes five components: configuration, orientation, localization, movement and non-manual markers. The analysis uses methods of recognition of individual gestures and continuous sign speech for Indian and Russian sign languages (RSL). To recognize individual gestures, the RSL Dataset was developed, which includes more than 35,000 files for over 1000 signs. Each sign was performed with 5 repetitions and at least by 5 deaf native speakers of the Russian Sign Language from Siberia. To isolate epenthesis for continuous RSL, 312 sentences with 5 repetitions were selected and recorded on video. Five types of movements were distinguished, namely, "No gesture", "There is a gesture", "Initial movement", "Transitional movement", "Final movement". The markup of sentences for highlighting epenthesis was carried out on the Supervisely.ly platform. A recurrent network architecture (LSTM) was built, implemented using the TensorFlow Keras machine learning library. The accuracy of correct recognition of epenthesis was 95 %. The work on a similar dataset for the recognition of both individual gestures and continuous Indian sign language (ISL) is continuing. To recognize hand gestures, the mediapipe holistic library module was used. It contains a group of trained neural network algorithms that allow obtaining the coordinates of the key points of the body, palms and face of a person in the image. The accuracy of 85 % was achieved for the verification data. In the future, it is necessary to significantly increase the amount of labeled data. To recognize non-manual components, a number of rules have been developed for certain movements in the face. These rules include positions for the eyes, eyelids, mouth, tongue, and head tilt.

Marking various aspects in Turkish Sign Language

Abstract Sign languages have been reported to have manual signs that function as perfective morphemes (Fischer & Gough 1999; Meir 1999; Rathmann 2005; Duffy 2007; Zucchi et al. 2010). Turkish Sign Language (TİD) has also been claimed to have such morphemes (Zeshan 2003; Kubuş & Rathmann 2009; Dikyuva 2011; Gökgöz 2011; Karabüklü 2016) as well as a nonmanual completive marker (‘bn’) (Dikyuva 2011). This study shows that the nonmanual ‘bn’ is in fact a perfective morpheme. We examine its compatibility with different event types and furthermore show that TİD has a manual sign bı̇t (‘finish’) that is indeed the completive marker but with possibly unusual restrictions on its use. Based on their distribution, the current study distinguishes bı̇t and ‘bn’ as different morphemes even though they can co-occur. TİD is argued to be typologically different from other sign languages since it has both a nonmanual marker (‘bn’) for a perfective morpheme and a manual sign (bı̇t) with different selectional properties than the manual signs reported for other sign languages.

Adquisició del canvi de rol i dels classificadors en el discurs narratiu en llengua de signes catalana (LSC) com a L2: un estudi pilot

Summary: A growing interest in the study of sign language linguistics deals with how the differences between the visual-gestural modality and the vocal-auditory modality affect the acquisition of a sign language by adults whose first language is a spoken language. This paper presents a pilot study on the acquisition of two essential and, to a large extent, specific characteristics of signed languages used in reference control: the nonmanual markers in role shift structures and classifiers. The comparison between native discourse in Catalan Sign Language (LSC) and adult learners of LSC as L2 with different levels of competence provides a careful insight into how these two reference mechanisms are used in the acquisition process. The present study analyses reference control in L2 signed discourse in terms of reference accessibility and the discussion is placed at the syntax-discourse interface. The detailed analysis shows how nonmanuals of role shift and classifiers play an important role in reference control, which implies an important position in the accessibility scale of discourse referents. Keywords: accessibility, acquisition, Catalan Sign Language (LSC), classifiers, discourse referents, nonmanual markers, pronouns, reference control, role shift, second language (L2)

Coordinació copulativa, disjuntiva i adversativa en llengua de signes catalana

Summary: Haspelmath (2007) defines coordination as a syntactic construction where two or more units are combined to form a larger one. Three main types of coordination can be found: conjunctive, disjunctive and adversative. The first one is marked by the coordinator “and”, the second by “or” and the third one by “but”. In sign languages and in Catalan Sign Language (LSC), too, this structure is as productive as in spoken languages. It is expressed mainly using non-manual markers such as body and head movements, which serve to mark the coordinated units. In addition, manual signs are used. This article aims to provide a description for the three main types of coordination in Catalan Sign Language (LSC): conjunctive, disjunctive and adversative. The data that will be presented will focus on clausal coordination, although it is assumed that the same strategies are used for coordination of all types of grammatical categories. Moreover, specific tests that need to be applied for LSC in order to identify coordination, in opposition to subordination, will be presented. Keywords: coordination, Catalan Sign Language (LSC), conjunction, disjunction, adversative coordination

Non-Manual Markers in Croatian Sign Language a Look at the Current State

Non-Manual Markers in Croatian Sign Language a Look at the Current State