non-LD Students Research Articles

Adaptive Learning and Correlative Assessment of Differential Usage Patterns for Students with-or-without Learning Disabilities via Learning Analytics

Learning Disabilities (LD) can be categorized into logical, analytical, grammatical, vocabulary, sequential, and inference disabilities. Analysis of such disabilities assists students to identify and strengthen their weak areas. A wide variety of analysis models is proposed by researchers to perform such tasks, but most of these models are highly complex and cannot be scaled for multimodal parameter sets. To overcome these issues, this text proposes a model for correlative assessment of differential usage patterns in students with-or-without learning disabilities via multimodal analysis. The proposed model initially collects real-time inference sets for students with Learning Disabilities (LD) and without LDs. These sets consist of question-specific recorded responses for “Addition,” “Carry Propagation,” “Basic to Advanced Grammar,” “Direct, Inference and Vocabulary Comprehension,” “Finding odd-man-out,” “Sequencing,” and “Pseudo and Sight Spelling” for different question sets. Answers to these questions and their metadata were processed via a correlative engine that assisted in evaluation of correctness, time needed per question per category, number of skips, number of revisits, and unanswered ratio for different students. This evaluation was combined with temporal analysis to identify per-category progress of students. Based on this progress, students were either upgraded to next level or given lower-level questions, which assisted them to incrementally improve their grades. The model proved that the performance of LD students is 55% less than the non-LD students and an average of 18 LD students have achieved an average of 33% of improvement after having multiple attempts of the adaptive lessons. The model uses a correlation function, which enables to identify answering patterns of LD and non-LD students with 98.4% accuracy, thus can be used for clinical scenarios.

Academic procrastination and feelings toward procrastination in LD and non-LD students: Preliminary insights for future intervention

ABSTRACTAcademic procrastination is a prevalent behavior that negatively influences students’ performance and well-being. The growing number of students with learning disabilities (LD) in higher education communities leads to the need to study and address academic procrastination in this unique population of students and to develop ways to prevent and intervene. The present study examined the difference in academic procrastination between LD, non-LD, and supported LD college students in Israel. Findings indicated a significant difference between the three groups, both in academic procrastination and in the desire to change this behavior. Interestingly, supported LD students were similar to non-LD students in all parameters of academic procrastination; however, they expressed less desire to change this behavior than unsupported LD students. These findings highlight the effect of general academic support on academic procrastination in LD students. Future studies will need to further explore the specific elements of support that most contribute to the reduction of academic procrastination in LD students. Specific support programs for academic procrastination in LD students who take into account the findings of these future studies can then be developed and studied.

Academic self-efficacy, sense of coherence, hope and tiredness among college students with learning disabilities

Some resilient students with LD succeed ‘against the odds’ and reach college. The goals of the study are to explore their resources and barriers during their studies. The relationships between academic self-efficacy (ASE) and personal resources (sense of coherence (SOC) and hope) among college students with learning disabilities (LD) will be examined. The sample consisted of 438 college students divided into two subgroups: 149 students with LD and 289 Non-LD students. Results indicated that college students with LD reported lower levels of ASE, as well as lower levels of hope subscales and SOC. Persistent challenges of early learning distress experienced by those students during school periods continue to be prevalent during their college years. The ASE was predicted by the personal resources, and the risk factor (tiredness lost its significance). The importance of personal resources (SOC and hope subscales) was further emphasised by the mediation model (PROCESS). They mediated the relationships between LD and ASE. These outcomes call for empowering interventional programmes in order to promote hopeful thinking and personal coherence.

Hope, optimism and loneliness among first-year college students with learning disabilities: a brief longitudinal study

The goals of the study were to examine personal resources and social distress during the first month in college among students with learning disabilities (LD) and to compare their experiences with non-LD peer. The sample consisted of 335 first-year undergraduate students falling into two groups: 85 students with LD and 250 non-LD students. Questionnaires assessed hope, dispositional optimism and loneliness. We hypothesised that, after participation in a single-session hope intervention workshop, the hope and optimism levels of both students with LD and without LD would increase, while their loneliness would decrease. However, after a month of facing the academic and social demands of their new college environment, we expected that the hope and optimism scores of students with LD would be lower than their peers without LD and that their loneliness scores would be higher. As hypothesised, both groups reported enhanced hope and optimism, as well as lower loneliness, immediately after the workshop. However, students with LD – but not their peers – returned to baseline levels of hope and loneliness after a month. Loneliness after a month predicted lower hope, after controlling predictors from the beginning of the year.

Exploratory Study of Informal Strategies for Equal Sharing Problems of Students With Learning Disabilities

Little to no information exists explaining the nature of conceptual gaps in understanding fractions for students with learning disabilities (LD); such information is vital to practitioners seeking to develop instruction or interventions. Many researchers argue such knowledge can be revealed through student’s problem-solving strategies. Despite qualitative differences in thinking and representation use in students with LD that may exist, existing frameworks of student’s strategies for solving fraction problems are not inclusive of students with LD. This exploratory study extends existing literature by documenting the strategies students with LD use when solving fraction problems. Clinical interviews were conducted with 10 students across the third, fourth, and fifth grades ( N = 10). Results indicate students with LD used similar strategies as previously reported in research involving non-LD students, although the dominant strategy utilized was less advanced and the range of strategy use was relatively compact. Researchers suggest the nature of conceptual gaps students with LD display in their understanding of fractions originates from a malleable source. Implications for instruction and assessment are presented.

A Comparison of Learning-Disabled Children and Non-Learning-Disabled Children on the Rorschach

The purpose of this study was to examine the differences between learning-disabled (LD) and non-learning-disabled (non-LD) students on the Rorschach inkblot test to help determine how differently the two groups process information. Using the cognitive triad in Exner’s Comprehensive System (CS), the variables consistent with past research and most representative of each of the three stages of the cognitive triad were investigated. The sample consisted of 62 schoolchildren in the age range of 7–12 years in the US state of California. Thirty-one children were identified as LD and were matched on age, gender, and ethnicity with a student who was identified as non-LD. The groups’ responses were compared using a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to determine whether differences existed between the groups for each of the Rorschach variables F%, W+, XA%, and WSum6. This study concluded that LD children are unable to perceive, interpret, and synthesize information from their environment in a clear and realistic way when compared with their non-LD peers.

Academic Procrastination, Emotional Intelligence, Academic Self-Efficacy, and GPA

Academic procrastination has been seen as an impediment to students’ academic success. Research findings suggest that it is related to lower levels of self-regulated learning and academic self-efficacy and associated with higher levels of anxiety, stress, and illness. Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to assess, regulate, and utilize emotions and has been found to be associated with academic self-efficacy and a variety of better outcomes, including academic performance. Students with learning disabilities (LD) are well acquainted with academic difficulty and maladaptive academic behavior. In comparison to students without LD, they exhibit high levels of learned helplessness, including diminished persistence, lower academic expectations, and negative affect. This study examined the relationships among academic procrastination, EI, and academic performance as mediated by academic self-efficacy in 287 LD and non-LD students. Results indicated that the indirect effect of EI on academic procrastination and GPA was stronger in LD students than in non-LD students. In addition, results indicated that LD students scored lower than non-LD students on both EI and academic self-efficacy and higher on academic procrastination. No difference was found in GPA.

Social anxiety among Arab adolescents with and without learning disabilities in various educational frameworks

ABSTRACT The aim of the current study is to examine differences in social anxiety between learning disabled (LD) and non-learning disabled (non-LD) students, taking into account educational placement. The present research is the first to consider the above relations among Christian Arab adolescents living in Israel as an Eastern collectivist minority. On the whole, students with LD (learning disabilities) reported higher levels of social anxiety than their non-LD peers. Moreover, adolescents with LD studying in a special education classroom reported higher levels of social anxiety than adolescents with LD in a partially inclusive classroom. An interesting and unexpected result was the higher levels of generalised social anxiety (SAD-G) reported by male adolescents in comparison to female adolescents. These results provide evidence that students with LD, especially those attending special education classes, suffer from high levels of social anxiety. This means that they experience intense distress, which can be expected to impair their social and academic performance. According to the present research, there is a slight advantage to partially inclusive classes.

Learning Disabilities and Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis

This article presents the results of a meta-analysis of the empirical literature on anxious symptomatology among school-aged students with learning disabilities (LD) in comparison to their non-LD peers. Fifty-eight studies met inclusion criteria. Results indicate that students with LD had higher mean scores on measures of anxiety than did non-LD students. The overall effect size was statistically significant and medium in magnitude (d = .61) although substantial heterogeneity of results was found. Moderator effects were examined for informant type, gender, grade, publication status, and identification source. Informant type (i.e., self-, parent, or teacher report) explained a significant amount of variability in the sample of studies, and identification source (i.e., school identified or special school and clinic/hospital identified) approached statistical significance. Implications for assessment and intervention are discussed.

Using predictions to learn about the self-efficacy of early adolescents with and without learning disabilities

This study used conventional self-efficacy measures as well as predictions of performance to examine the spelling and writing efficacy beliefs of early adolescents with and without learning disabilities (LD). In addition, the study examined two types of global efficacy—self-efficacy for self-regulated learning and general self-efficacy. The students with LD over-estimated their spelling performance by 52% and their writing performance by 19%, whereas the non-LD students were generally accurate in their performance estimates. Students’ performance predictions and self-efficacy ratings were strong predictors of a composite writing performance, but the self-efficacy for self-regulated learning and general self-efficacy scores did not predict writing performance. The article concludes with a discussion of recommendations to improve the calibration and academic functioning of adolescents with learning disabilities.

Performance Approach-Avoidance Motivation and Planned Behavior Theory: Model Stability with Greek Students with and without Learning Disabilities

ABSTRACT Two studies evaluated the contribution of goal orientation—over and above the constructs of planned behavior theory—in explaining the relationship between attitudes, motivation, and academic achievement for students with and without learning disabilities. Results indicated that a performance-approach orientation exerted significant positive effects on all elements of planned behavior theory, whereas the effects of performance-avoidance orientation were minimal and mostly on the negative side (Study I). It was also found that while a mastery orientation was adaptive for both groups, a performance-approach orientation was more adaptive for the LD group compared to the non-LD student group (Study II). Within-groups analyses suggested that achievement was associated with a unique network of relationships, that was different for the two groups: for the LD student group, intentions were influenced strongly by the normative system, whereas for non-LD students, they were mediated by individual's own attitudes.

Risk factors for substance use by Mexican American youth with and without learning disabilities.

This survey study was designed to (a) investigate the prevalence of minor and major substance use among low socioeconomic status elementary and middle school Mexican American students identified with learning disabilities (LD; n = 150) and without LD (n = 150), and (b) identify psychosocial and environmental risk factors that may lead to the use of various substances among both non-learning disabled (non-LD) students and students with LD in an all-Mexican American sample. No differences were found in the use of substances between the two groups. Risk factors that were found to influence the use of minor substances for students identified as learning disabled, as opposed to the non-LD students, included use of substances by close friends and susceptibility to peer influence. Risk factors that were found to affect the use of major substances for students identified as learning disabled, as opposed to the non-LD students, included the number of minor substances used and stressful life events. Findings are discussed in the context of differing pathways leading to the use of substances for non-LD students and students with LD within an intraethnic group study.

Learning Disabilities and Social Environments: Kibbutz versus City Comparisons of Loneliness and Social Competence

In order to explore aspects of loneliness and social competence of learning disabled students in relation to specific environmental contexts, this study focused on children in two different social systems: a kibbutz and a city. The aim of the study was to investigate the social skills and loneliness patterns among 122 students with learning disabilities (LD) in self-contained special classes within regular school systems (66 kibbutz students; 56 city students) and among 120 nondisabled (nonLD) students within these same environmental conditions (69 kibbutz students; 51 city students). A four-way MANCOVA (LD/nonLD X kibbutz/city X male/female X lower/higher grades, with age as covariate) was performed for self-reported loneliness and empathy, peer-rated sociometric measures, teacher-rated social skills, and classroom adjustment as the dependent measures. LD youngsters were found to be less socially competent and more lonely than their nonLD peers in all social competence areas, and as assessed by three sources of information. When compared with LD city students, LD kibbutz students were evaluated by their teachers as demonstrating fewer maladaptive externalising behaviours, and by their peers as having more friends. Social contexts did not differentiate between the two LD groups' feeling of loneliness or rates of peer acceptance, and it can be concluded that students with LD were found to experience loneliness regardless of gender or environmental conditions.

Relationships and Differences among Social Skills, Problem Behaviors, and Academic Competence for Mainstreamed Learning-Disabled and Nonhandicapped Students

The present study was motivated by the Interagency Committee on Learning Disabilities (ICLD) recommendation that learning disabilities include social skills as a deficit area and by the fact few researchers have directly assessed specific social skills of students classified as learning disabled. This study used a national representative sample of students from the standardization data of the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) to investigate social skills of students with learning disabilities compared with nonlearning disabled students as rated by teachers, parents, and the students themselves. This investigation also examined the relationships among social skills, problem behaviors, and academic competence of these students. The results indicated there were significant differences in the frequencies of social skills exhibited by LD and nonLD students. Consistent differences between the two groups of students were noted across parents' and teachers' ratings. Although students' ratings did not differentiate LD and nonLD students, the trends in the self-ratings were consistent with those of parents and teachers. Moderate to low interrater agreement was found among teacher, parent, and student ratings suggesting differences exist in the observations of raters and behavioral differences seem to occur across settings. Overall, these findings were consistent with recent research on children's social functioning and social competence and provide an empirical rationale for social skills training for a wide variety of students whether they are classified as LD or not.

Social Competence as a Multifaceted Construct: How do Students with Learning Disabilities Fare?

This article summarizes and extends the findings from a prospective, longitudinal study that examined the social competence of students with learning disabilities (LD) from kindergarten through fifth grade. Four components that represent a model of social competence were measured: peer relations, social cognition, behavior problems, and social skills. Findings revealed that over time youngsters with LD demonstrated the same trends on all aspects of social competence as nonLD students. Students with LD did not differ significantly from low-achieving (LA) nonLD students on any of the measures of social competence; however, they were significantly different from average/high-achieving (AHA) nonLD students on social skills and behavior problems, but not peer acceptance or self-concept. The discussion addresses the social competence of students with LD from a developmental perspective as well as how they contrast with other achievement groups (LA and AHA). Issues and suggestions for future directions for research on the social-emotional development of youngsters with LD are presented.

The Social Competence of Students with Learning Disabilities Over Time

O ver the past 6 years, we have investigated the social competence of a cohort of students whom we have followed longitudinally from kindergarten. Our primary research questions addressed the extent to which students from this cohort identified as learning disabled (LD) differed from other achievement subgroups (e.g., low achievement, average achievement) on aspects of social competence over time (Vaughn & Haager, in press; Vaughn, Hogan, Kouzekanani, & Shapiro, 1990; Vaughn, Zaragoza, Hogan, Walker, 1993). We were also interested in the extent to which the social competence of youngsters with LD differed significantly from that of other achievement groups prior to and following identification (Vaughn, Haager, Hogan, & Kouzekanani, 1992). When we addressed these questions, we compared the findings regarding students with LD with those of other achievement groups so that we could better understand the extent to which results were characteristic of the LD subgroup or were developmental and descriptive of all subgroups. Thus, if the social competence of students with LD decreased after identification, we could assess the extent to which this decrease was reflected in the performance of other achievement subgroups as well. To guide this investigation, we utilized a model of social competence that was analogous to that of intelligence in several ways (Vaughn & Hogan, 1990). First, we view social competence as a higher order construct that, like intelligence, is difficult to define and consists of several related constructs. Second, although the constructs are separated for the purpose of description, it is really the interaction of these constructs that yields the fullest understanding of social competence. Thus, we interpret the components as a part rather than the whole of our notion of social competence. Third, and perhaps most important to the purpose of this article, we are interested in the study of social competence from an individual-difference perspective as well as a developmental one. We are interested in how social competence varies over time and how the components of social competence, for example, self-concept and peer acceptance, mutually relate at one time and contribute to the development of the other components across time. As described in our previous research, we consider social competence to include the following four components: positive relations with others, accurate/age-appropriate social cognition, absence of maladaptive behaviors, and effective social skills. For the purposes of our research, these components have been isolated; however, we recognize that it is their interrelationship that is likely to yield the truest understanding of social competence. Finally, we recognize that, as with most constructs, the measures we select merely assess elements of the components of interest. Because the results of our studies based on the previously described model of social competence have been summarized elsewhere (Vaughn & Haager, in press), only a brief review will be provided here. The most frequently investigated construct of social competence is peer relations—the extent to which same-age peers accept or reject target students. Peer relations is a frequently investigated construct because of the persuasive evidence linking low social status with negative outcomes, such as emotional maladjustment (Cowen, Pederson, Babigian, Izzo, & Trost, 1973; Roff, 1963); criminality (Roff, 1975; Roff, Sells, & Golden, 1972); and school dropout (Lambert, 1972; Parker & Asher, 1987). An overwhelming number of studies investigating the peer acceptance of students with LD contrast this subgroup with non-LD students as a whole, rather than with achievement subgroups (e.g., other low-achieving students). The most consistent finding, at least with elementary school children, is that students with LD are less well accepted and more frequently rejected by their classmates than are students in the non-LD group. The non-LD compari-

Identification of Learning Disabilities: Accuracy of Aptitudeachievement Discrepancy Criteria vs. The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery

This study investigated the diagnostic accuracy of current LD criteria (using the simple difference method) as well as the accuracy of a neuropsychological battery for a group of 31 LD adolescents and a matched group of 31 low-average to average achieving non-LD students. Measures included the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB), WISC-R, TOWL, and selected subtests from the PIAT, WRAT-R, and TOAL. The simple difference method of quantifying a severe discrepancy failed to differentiate between groups and generated a high rate of misclassification in the false positive direction (97%). The LNNB was found to be highly accurate for the LD diagnosis. Overall rates of accuracy were high using a rule for interpreting test profile data (95%) or discriminant function analysis (87.1%). Additionally, the LNNB generated relatively low false positive rates by either method (9.7% and 12.9%, respectively). The adjunctive diagnosticutility of the LNNB and implications of findings for LD diagnosis are discussed.

Cognitive functioning in learning-disabled and nonlearning-disabled secondary level students

A study was conducted to compare on a number of specialized cognitive procedures the performance of high school students designated as learning disabled (LD) with the performance of nonlearning-disabled students experiencing learning difficulties (nonLD). Both groups were then compared with a control group of typical learners. Results indicate that when taken as a group LD and nonLD students differed significantly from a control group of typical learners on 6 of 16 variables. LD students differed from nonLD students with learning difficulties on 5 of 16 variables. The performance of LD and nonLD students with learning difficulties indicates patterns of cognitive functioning that differ from those of typical learners. The possibility of the development of compensatory cognitive styles in LD and nonLD students and their implications are discussed.

Teacher perceptions of temperament characteristics of children classified as learning disabled.

The present study investigated the temperament characteristics of children classified as learning disabled (LD) by comparing the responses of teachers of LD students on the Temperament Assessment Battery (Martin, 1984) to those of teachers of non-LD students. Overall group differences were found between teachers of the LD students and teachers of the non-LD students. Overall, the teachers of the LD students consistently evidenced perceptions in the negative direction, as compared to the teachers of the non-LD. It was concluded that social ability/adjustment (adaptability and approach/withdrawal) and persistence (persistence and distractibility) contribute to the definition of the LD child's temperament. Teachers' perceptions of temperament then may affect teachers' perception of the LD child's social competence status.

Interpersonal problem-solving skills and classroom behavioral adjustment in learning-disabled adolescents and comparison peers

Teaching interpersonal problem-solving skills to learning-disabled (LD) students is thought to improve the classroom adjustment of these students. However, very few studies have determined the relationship between such skills and adjustment. Thirty mainstreamed LD adolescents and thirty non-LD classmates in two suburban middle-class New Jersey school districts were administered the Platt and Spivack (1977) test of five interpersonal cognitive problem-solving (ICPS) skills (J. Platt & G. Spivack, Measures of Interpersonal Cognitive Problem-Solving. A Manual, Philadelphia: Hahnemann MH/MR Center), and their teachers rated each of the students on the School Behavior Checklist. LD adolescents scored significantly lower than non-LD peers on four of the five ICPS skills. No significant differences were found between the groups on the five School Behavior Checklist subscales that measure classroom social behavior. Few significant correlations were found between the ICPS skills and classroom adjustment for either the LD or non-LD students.