Nonhuman Remains Research Articles

Advances in commingled human remains analysis between 2014 and 2023.

This study reviews recent advances in osteometric, genetic, geochemical, and digital modeling applications since 2014 to demonstrate the expanded range of analyses and skeletal elements that can be used to separate individuals from commingled contexts. While traditional methods remain foundational to commingling resolution, new advances allow increased individuation, identification of human versus non-human remains, and an amplified scale of assemblages that can be analyzed. This summary offers ways for practitioners to consider the juxtaposition of analytical goals, time, financial concerns, and methods when managing commingled assemblages. Forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology case studies illustrate differences related to application of methods in terms of recovery environments, project goals, and recovered materials. Whether the goal is to isolate and individuate only major elements or as many bones as possible, in nearly all cases, it is best practice to combine several types of methods to fulfill the project scope within the established parameters. This review can help practitioners identify the most appropriate analytical protocols and methods for their projects.

Integrating histology in the analysis of multispecies cremations: A case study from early medieval England

AbstractMethodological options for differentiating commingled human from nonhuman calcined remains are limited. A zooarchaeological analysis of human cremations from three early medieval sites in the Avon Valley (Warwickshire, England) identified commingled animal remains in burials from the site of Bidford‐on‐Avon, but not at the contemporary sites of Wasperton and Alveston Manor. A histological study was conducted to further investigate whether additional fragments of nonhuman bone could be identified and to quantify potential differences in preservation or cremation intensity between the sites. Bone fragments (n = 92) were selected from 44 cremation burials across the three sites for thin section preparation. Histological cross sections were observed to record the presence of fibrolamellar plexiform bone and secondary osteon banding, as well as to categorize the histological preservation and cremation intensity. The analysis did not identify any nonhuman remains from Wasperton or Alveston Manor, but nonhuman bone fragments were identified in the Bidford‐on‐Avon histology sample. These data supplement and support the findings of the macroscopic analysis that multispecies commingled cremations were only prevalent at Bidford‐on‐Avon. No statistically significant differences were identified in histological preservation or cremation intensity between the cemeteries. Variability in animal use in funerary rites between cemetery sites, rather than preservation bias, is therefore the likely explanation for the differential recovery of commingled nonhuman bone from excavated cremation burials. These results confirm that histomorphology is a useful tool to incorporate in the analysis of multispecies commingled cremations.

Forensic Tools for Species Identification of Skeletal Remains: Metrics, Statistics, and OsteoID.

Simple SummaryForensic anthropologists are commonly asked to determine whether bones are of human origin and, if not, to which species they belong. Current practice usually relies on visual assessments rather than quantitative analyses. This study aimed to test the utility of basic bone metrics in discriminating human from nonhuman elements and assigning faunal species. A database of more than 50,000 skeletal measurements was compiled from humans and 27 nonhuman species. Equations and classification trees were developed that can differentiate human from nonhuman species with upwards of 90% accuracy, even when the bone type is not first identified. Classification trees return accuracy rates greater than 98% for the human sample. These quantitative models provide statistical support to visual assessments and can be used for preliminary assessment of a bone’s forensic significance at a scene. The statistical models, however, could not classify species at acceptable rates. For species identification, a freely available web tool (OsteoID) was created from the study data, where users can filter photographs of potential bones/species using a few basic measurements and access 3D scans and additional resources to facilitate identification. OsteoID provides an important resource for forensic anthropologists lacking access to large comparative skeletal collections, as well as other disciplines where comparative osteological training is necessary.Although nonhuman remains constitute a significant portion of forensic anthropological casework, the potential use of bone metrics to assess the human origin and to classify species of skeletal remains has not been thoroughly investigated. This study aimed to assess the utility of quantitative methods in distinguishing human from nonhuman remains and present additional resources for species identification. Over 50,000 measurements were compiled from humans and 27 nonhuman (mostly North American) species. Decision trees developed from the long bone data can differentiate human from nonhuman remains with over 90% accuracy (>98% accuracy for the human sample), even if all long bones are pooled. Stepwise discriminant function results were slightly lower (>87.4% overall accuracy). The quantitative models can be used to support visual identifications or preliminarily assess forensic significance at scenes. For species classification, bone-specific discriminant functions returned accuracies between 77.7% and 89.1%, but classification results varied highly across species. From the study data, we developed a web tool, OsteoID, for users who can input measurements and be shown photographs of potential bones/species to aid in visual identification. OsteoID also includes supplementary images (e.g., 3D scans), creating an additional resource for forensic anthropologists and others involved in skeletal species identification and comparative osteology.

Baggage scanners and their use as an imaging resource in mass fatality incidents

Disaster victim identification following a mass fatality incident is focussed on identifying the deceased and returning them to their families as quickly as possible, while gathering as much information as practical to aid investigators in establishing the cause of the incident. Ante-mortem data is gathered and compared with the post-mortem data obtained in order to positively identify the deceased. This paper presents results from a study concerned with the first part of the process of identifying the deceased—the triage or Primary Survey and how this can be done without access to hospital facilities such as conventional X-ray imaging or computed tomography. In particular, this study focuses on the imaging undertaken prior to the opening of the body bag by a multidisciplinary team, and how this imaging can assist particularly when forensic anthropologists are involved in the identification process. There are several advantages to imaging the body bags before they are opened and one of the most important is safety. Thus, this paper examines the viability of using a baggage scanner as a practical resource for X-ray imaging, as many regions worldwide may not be able to access conventional imaging equipment. Baggage scanners are readily available and found in airports and various government buildings. The baggage scanner is particularly suited to this task and produces images that can be used by forensic anthropologists to distinguish between human and non-human remains, identify items of evidence and personal effects, and even perform a preliminary or partial biological profile. When considering their response plans, emergency responders should consider including baggage scanners as a contingency for screening body bags if no other imaging system is available.

Mossberga Mosse: Excavating the Archives and Tracing Museum Ecologies

ABSTRACT Bog bodies are rare finds occasionally revealed in connection with peat-cutting or excavation of drains. However, the record might be richer than formerly acknowledged, as earlier finds may survive as non-identified parts of museum collections, and have, therefore, been missed by researchers. This paper presents osteological finds from Mossberga bog on the island of Öland which were rediscovered in museum storage recently. It provides a case study that traces how the archaeological and antiquarian processes ‘tie together’ and ‘cut apart’ materials in what could be called museum ecologies. The assemblage includes human and non-human remains from a bog site and investigates how wetland archaeology is taken from excavation into the public domain. The relationships around this find are folded out, using radiocarbon dating, osteological analysis, archival materials and landscape descriptions to tie together and problematize stories of how the practice of depositing bodies in wetlands stretched across centuries.

An Upper Palaeolithic engraved human bone associated with ritualistic cannibalism.

Cut-marked and broken human bones are a recurrent feature of Magdalenian (~17–12,000 years BP, uncalibrated dates) European sites. Human remains at Gough’s Cave (UK) have been modified as part of a Magdalenian mortuary ritual that combined the intensive processing of entire corpses to extract edible tissues and the modification of skulls to produce skull-cups. A human radius from Gough’s Cave shows evidence of cut marks, percussion damage and human tooth marks, indicative of cannibalism, as well as a set of unusual zig-zagging incisions on the lateral side of the diaphysis. These latter incisions cannot be unambiguously associated with filleting of muscles. We compared the macro- and micro-morphological characteristics of these marks to over 300 filleting marks on human and non-human remains and to approximately 120 engraved incisions observed on two artefacts from Gough’s Cave. The new macro- and micro-morphometric analyses of the marks, as well as further comparisons with French Middle Magdalenian engraved artefacts, suggest that these modifications are the result of intentional engraving. The engraved motif comfortably fits within a Magdalenian pattern of design; what is exceptional in this case, however, is the choice of raw material (human bone) and the cannibalistic context in which it was produced. The sequence of the manipulations suggests that the engraving was a purposeful component of the cannibalistic practice, implying a complex ritualistic funerary behaviour that has never before been recognized for the Palaeolithic period.

Determination of genetic relatedness from low-coverage human genome sequences using pedigree simulations.

We develop and evaluate methods for inferring relatedness among individuals from low-coverage DNA sequences of their genomes, with particular emphasis on sequences obtained from fossil remains. We suggest the major factors complicating the determination of relatedness among ancient individuals are sequencing depth, the number of overlapping sites, the sequencing error rate and the presence of contamination from present-day genetic sources. We develop a theoretical model that facilitates the exploration of these factors and their relative effects, via measurement of pairwise genetic distances, without calling genotypes, and determine the power to infer relatedness under various scenarios of varying sequencing depth, present-day contamination and sequencing error. The model is validated by a simulation study as well as the analysis of aligned sequences from present-day human genomes. We then apply the method to the recently published genome sequences of ancient Europeans, developing a statistical treatment to determine confidence in assigned relatedness that is, in some cases, more precise than previously reported. As the majority of ancient specimens are from animals, this method would be applicable to investigate kinship in nonhuman remains. The developed software grups (Genetic Relatedness Using Pedigree Simulations) is implemented in Python and freely available.

Cannibalism versus funerary defleshing and disarticulation after a period of decay: comparisons of bone modifications from four prehistoric sites.

Humanly induced modifications on human and non-human bones from four archaeological sites of known funerary rituals (one interpreted as cannibalism and three interpreted as funerary defleshing and disarticulation after a period of decay) were analyzed to ascertain whether macromorphological and micromorphological characteristics of cut marks can be used to distinguish cannibalistic from secondary burial practices. Four collections were analyzed: the Magdalenian assemblage from Gough's Cave (UK) and the Mesolithic-Neolithic bone samples from Lepenski Vir, Padina and Vlasac (Serbia). A total of 647 cut marks (345 on human and 302 on non-human remains) were imaged and measured using an optical surface measurement system, the Alicona InfiniteFocus, housed at the Natural History Museum (London, UK). The frequency of cut marks at Gough's Cave exceeds 65%, while it is below 1% in the Serbian sites, and no human tooth marks and only one case of percussion damage have been observed on the three Serbian collections. The distribution of cut marks on human bones is comparable in the four assemblages. Cannibalized human remains, however, present a uniform cut mark distribution, which can be associated with disarticulation of persistent and labile articulations, and the scalping and filleting of muscles. For secondary burials where modification occurred after a period of decay, disarticulation marks are less common and the disarticulation of labile joints is rare. The micromorphometric analyses of cut marks on human and non-human remains suggest that cut marks produced when cleaning partially decayed bodies are significantly different from cut marks produced during butchery of fresh bodies. A distinction between cannibalism and secondary treatment of human bodies can be made based on frequency, distribution and micromorphometric characteristics of cut marks.

Investigación paleoantropológica de los fósiles neandertales de El Sidrón (Asturias, España)

Tras 13 campañas de excavación metódica, y una vez concluidos definitivamente los trabajos de campo en la Galería del Osario de la cueva de El Sidrón (Asturias, España), se presenta una breve evaluación de las investigaciones paleoantropológicas realizadas. Los restos neandertales recuperados ascienden a más de 2550, a los que hay que sumar las 400 piezas de industria lítica musteriense y los muy escasos restos de fauna; asociación que hace de este yacimiento un lugar muy singular. Análisis sedimentológicos, tafonómicos y estructurales del karst aclaran que el depósito fosilífero se encuentra en posición secundaria y procede, por desplazamiento en masa, de una galería/abrigo de un nivel superior. Todas las partes del esqueleto están representadas y se han identificado 13 individuos: 7 adultos (3 masculinos, 4 femeninos), 3 adolescentes (2 masculinos, 1 femenino), 2 juveniles masculinos y un infantil. En la actualidad, la colección de El Sidrón constituye la muestra de neandertales más numerosa y diversa de la Península Ibérica y permite abordar estudios sistémicos sobre el tempo y modo de aparición de los caracteres derivados en el linaje neandertal. El amplio programa de investigación paleobiológica emprendido abarca los diferentes niveles de organización biológica, desde los anatómicos macroscópicos al molecular. En este último destaca especialmente la extracción de secuencias de ADN, con participación de El Sidrón en los proyectos genoma y exoma neandertal, además de la caracterización de los haplotipos de ADN mitocondrial de 12 individuos. Los resultados genéticos, ratificados por datos osteológicos, definen a los neandertales de El Sidrón como un grupo homogéneo, con estrechos lazos familiares entre sus individuos. Finalmente, las numerosas evidencias del tratamiento antrópico de los restos hacen de El Sidrón un ejemplo paradigmático de prácticas de canibalismo entre los neandertales.

Our Bones: The Need for Diverse Human Skeletal Collections

As a forensic anthropologist my job, career and reputation literally depend on knowing the human skeleton inside out. But my work requires more than simply being able to distinguish human from nonhuman remains, or a fragment of a radius from an ulna, to consistently and accurately estimating a person’s age at death, ancestry, sex, stature, identity, trauma and disease by examining their bones and teeth. Becoming a skilled physical anthropologist, therefore, requires years of education, training, and experience studying known-identity skeletons, as well as documented examples of disease and trauma. The foundation for much of this training rests on the availability and accessibility of large and diverse human skeletal collections from around the world.

Subsistence and mobility strategies in the Epipalaeolithic: a stable isotope analysis of human and faunal remains at 'Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan

This paper investigates evidence for subsistence and settlement activities in the Levantine Middle Epipalaeolithic through the application of stable isotope analysis to human and non-human remains from the site of 'Uyun al-Hammam, northern Jordan. In general, bone from the site suffers a high degree of diagenesis and collagen could not be extracted for analysis here. Carbon and oxygen isotopic values from human tooth enamel samples were variable, but within expected values for the Middle Epipalaeolithic, whereas animal carbon and oxygen isotopic values varied widely, most likely due to hydrological and climatological factors. Carbon and isotopic values for the human samples indicated a predominantly C3 plant dietary input, while animal samples appeared to have varying amounts of C4 inputs into their diet. This is the first isotopic analysis conducted on material from the Middle Epipalaeolithic of the southern Levant and, as such, even results constrained by temporal and climatological variants within the region contribute to the overall knowledge of settlement and subsistence strategies during this cultural period.

Chapter 10: Ancient Mortuary Ritual and Human Taphonomy

Abstract Human and nonhuman faunal remains from small deposits at three sites, NGRP 16, 23, and 46, were analyzed to determine the species and minimum numbers of individuals represented, and to investigate the processes of natural and human-induced modification that resulted in the extensive fragmentation of the human remains. Taphonomic analysis indicates perimortem modification of the human remains during disarticulation and processing as well as pig predation. The types and locations of tool marks, fractures, and fracture products are quantified and described, and quantitative taphonomic profiles for the human remains are compared to human and nonhuman bone assemblages from middens and normative burial contexts on Fiji. The NGRP assemblages do not taphonomically match other assemblages believed to represent incidents of cannibalism, but this does not rule out the consumption of human flesh or decomposition fluids. We reject the notion of a universal taphonomic signature of cannibalism, and find it more...

The role of forensic anthropology in Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)

This paper briefly describes Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) and reviews the history of the use of forensic anthropology in the identification process. The potential contributions made by forensic anthropology are illustrated through the presentation of a case study. In February 2009 the state of Victoria in south-eastern Australia experienced the most devastating bushfires in its history, resulting in catastrophic loss of life and public and private property. Within 48 h of the disaster, forensic teams including pathologists, odontologists and anthropologists assembled at the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine in Melbourne to begin the task of identifying the deceased. This paper reviews the part played by forensic anthropologists in the identification process and outlines the important contribution anthropologists can make to DVI, especially at the scene, in the mortuary and in the reconciliation process. The anthropologist's experience with differentially preserved human remains meant they played an important role identifying and recovering heavily fragmentary human skeletal remains, differentiating human from non-human remains, establishing basic biological information such as the sex and age of the individuals and confirming or denying the possibility of re-associating body parts for release to families.

Contribution of postmortem multidetector CT scanning to identification of the deceased in a mass disaster: Experience gained from the 2009 Victorian bushfires

CT scanning of the deceased is an established technique performed on all individuals admitted to VIFM over the last 5 years. It is used primarily to assist pathologists in determining cause and manner of death but is also invaluable for identification of unknown deceased individuals where traditional methods are not possible. Based on this experience, CT scanning was incorporated into phase 2 of the Institute's DVI process for the 2009 Victorian bushfires. All deceased individuals and fragmented remains admitted to the mortuary were CT scanned in their body bags using established protocols. Images were reviewed by 2 teams of 2 radiologists experienced in forensic imaging and the findings transcribed onto a data sheet constructed specifically for the DVI exercise. The contents of 255 body bags were examined in the 28 days following the fires. 164 missing persons were included in the DVI process with 163 deceased individuals eventually identified. CT contributed to this identification in 161 persons. In 2 cases, radiologists were unable to recognize commingled remains. CT was utilized in the initial triage of each bag's contents. If radiological evaluation determined that bodies were incomplete then this information was provided to search teams who revisited the scenes of death. CT was helpful in differentiation of human from non-human remains in 8 bags, recognition of human/animal commingling in 10 bags and human commingling in 6 bags. In 61% of cases gender was able to be determined on CT using a novel technique of genitalia detection and in all but 2 cases this was correct. Age range was able to be determined on CT in 94% with an accuracy of 76%. Specific identification features detected on CT included the presence of disease (14 disease entities in 13 cases), medical devices (26 devices in 19 cases) and 274 everyday metallic items associated with the remains of 135 individuals. CT scanning provided useful information prior to autopsy by flagging likely findings including the presence of non-human remains, at the time of autopsy by assisting in the localization of identifying features in heavily disfigured bodies, and after autopsy by retrospective review of images for clarification of issues that arose at the time of pathologist case review. In view of the success of CT scanning in this mass disaster, DVI administrators should explore the incorporation of CT services into their disaster plans.

King Tutankhamun’s Family and Demise

To the Editor: In their study, Dr Hawass and colleagues reported ancient DNA data from 11 royal Egyptian mummies and used microsatellites to ascertain kinship among specimens. We question the reliability of the genetic data presented in this study and therefore the validity of the authors’ conclusions. Furthermore, we urge a more critical assessment of the ancient DNA data in the context of DNA degradation and contamination. The long-term survival of DNA is determined by the environmental history of the samples, and Gilbert et al argued in reference to mitochondrial DNA that “in most, if not all, ancient Egyptian remains, [ancient DNA] does not survive to a level that is currently retrievable.” The age of the mummies (more than 3300 years before the present) coupled with their preservation history suggests that DNA survival is highly unlikely. Longterm survival of nuclear DNA sequences, as accessed by Hawass et al, is even less likely than mitochondrial DNA, given lower copy numbers per cell. Success in the retrieval of putative nuclear DNA sequences is also surprising given the use of traditional polymerase chain reaction techniques rather than newly developed capture approaches coupled with second-generation sequencing that allow for successful capture of degraded (shorter) DNA sequences. Contamination is a major obstacle in human ancient DNA research. Although laboratory members involved in the study were genotyped, no persons handling the specimens prior to the study were included, raising a question of the reliability of the microsatellite profiles. Precautions such as genotyping of associated nonhuman remains and including information on the microsatellite allele frequencies in presentday Egypt would have clarified the issue of modern contamination. Another cause for concern is the lack of reported quality control measures in the genotyping of microsatellites. Potential genotyping errors include allelic stutters, allelic dropout, short allele dominance, and null alleles, all of which can result in the incorrect identification of alleles. Even small error rates (0.01 per allele) can lead to high error rates in downstream applications, such as false paternity exclusion in kinship testing.

A study to differentiate between human and nonhuman long bone pattern

Identification of human or nonhuman origin in skeletal remains is vital in assisting the police and investigating officers, and it can be difficult in fragmented remains. About 25–30% of medicolegal cases involving nonhuman skeletal remains have been mistaken for human (Bass, 1995). Literature showed that histomorphometric differentiation between human and nonhuman bone was lacking, and needs further research. The objective of this study was to differentiate between human and nonhuman (mammal) long bone by using a histomorphometric method. Some 64 human bones and 65 animal bones were collected from the mortuary of the UKMMC (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre) and the zoos in Malaysia, respectively. A standardised method modified from Caropresso (2000) was used to produce bone thin sections. Assessments were made on ten microstructuralparameters using image analysis. Discriminant function analysis showed correct classification rates for 81.4% of cases, with identification accuracy of 96.9% for human and 66.2% for animal (p

Santeria and Palo Mayombe: Skulls, Mercury, and Artifacts

Santeria and Palo Mayombe are syncretic religions created in the New World based upon African religious beliefs combined with Christianity. The main worship of Palo Mayombe involves religious receptacles that may contain earth, sticks, varied artifacts, and animal and human remains. Due to the use of human and nonhuman remains, discovery of these items often leads to involvement by the police due to a concern of homicide. We review in detail the medical examiner records of two of these ritualistic cases including the autopsy, anthropology, police, and investigators' reports. For the human remains, careful consideration of the context in which the remains were recovered, their state of preservation, and the associated artifacts (e.g., beads and mercury) are important in determining the appropriate level of forensic significance. Anthropological examination with particular attention to taphonomic characteristics also may help determine the origin and forensic significance.

Late/Terminal Archaic Mortuary Practices in the Northeastern United States

Late/Terminal Archaic (4000-2500 B.P.) mortuary practices are poorly understood in the Northeastern United States. This current study is designed to evaluate selected mortuary sites in terms of feature categories, grave good diversity, burial types, and associated non-human faunal and botanical remains. The Late/Terminal Archaic was a period of rapid climatic change which coincided with dramatic population increases, resource intensification, settlement system shifts, and highly ritualized burial ceremonialism. Current data indicate that Late Archaic populations throughout much of the Northeast exhibited a complex series of seasonal movements, based upon seasonal availability of resources and highly ritualized cremation burial behavior. Late Archaic groups coalesced in riverine zones in the fall season, where economic activities oriented toward nut harvesting, mammal hunting, and possibly anadromous fishing, coincided with increasingly formal and complex cremation burial ritual; settlement systems during this period broadly correspond to collectors. With the completion of the autumn food harvesting and ritual cycle, groups dispersed into upland zones in the winter months to hunt mammals and coastal zones in the spring and summer to procure aquatic-related resources. Regional climatic changes toward the end of the Late (Terminal) Archaic and the early portion of the Early Woodland (3200-2500 B.P.) may have necessitated higher group mobility more typical of foragers and corresponding changes in cremation burial ritual.

Osteological analysis of nonhuman remains: understanding the growth and developmental patterns of post‐crania

Osteological analyses of human and nonhuman bones are essential in the forensic assessment of unknown commingled remains. T. Dale Stewart was one of the first to recognize the resemblance between human and nonhuman remains when he reported the similarity between human and North American black bear tarsal bones, reinforcing the importance and difficulty of discerning human from nonhuman bones. We report findings on commingled skeletal remains uncovered from a construction site in New York City. Preliminary assessment of the bones narrowed them to a cow distal femur, a deer fibula and a pig humerus. Further analysis of the cow femur showed a flattened plateau on the anterior surface, characteristic of a sub‐adult cow. In addition, it lacked the sloped trochlea apparent in adult femurs. At the joint surface, four condylar‐like bony projections were present, consistent with the removed epiphysis of a sub‐adult. A comparison of the characteristic anatomy of found bones with bones from the terrestrial mammalian collection representing 7 genera and 9 species from the Division of Mammalogy at the American Museum of Natural History confirmed our analysis. Our study demonstrates that knowledge of the origin of bones, as well as the developmental stages of the specimens, is critical towards the assessment of unknown remains for a just resolution and sound testimony in medical and legal investigations.Grant Funding SourceDo not have funding

E-anthropology and pathology: satisfying cultural and budgetary sensitivities

Skeletalised remains are commonly referred to forensic mortuaries for examination. The most frequently referred cases are historical indigenous skeletal remains and those of non-human origin. These types of remains are usually of no immediate Coronial interest. Remains of this nature are often located in country regions, remote from the mortuary. Consequently, unnecessary transportation is expensive and time consuming. Additionally, disturbance of historical indigenous remains is usually undesirable due to cultural sensitivities. To overcome these issues, a triage system utilising digital image assessment has been instituted in Western Australia since 2004, with digital images being examined in Perth by a forensic anthropologist and pathologist. To ensure accuracy and quality of the assessments, a protocol and Scene Assessment Sheet (which meet NATA standards) have been developed. Results of this initiative show the number of mortuary admissions of historical indigenous skeletal remains has decreased significantly and non-human remains have shown a steady decline. Controlled trials have confirmed the accuracy of the method. Additionally, areas of potential misinterpretation, such as pseudo-injury, have been identified for consideration. It is anticipated this electronic assessment system may be useful Australia-wide, in remote policing districts, as a means of meeting the financial, logistical and cultural requirements of these cases.