Non-host City Research Articles

Leveraging para-sport events for accessible tourism development in non-host cities: Tokyo 2020 Paralympic Games

PurposeThis study aimed to explore Tokyo 2020’s non-host cities leveraging the Paralympic Games for accessible tourism development. Following their successful bid, the Japanese government launched a national initiative to promote an inclusive society, extending beyond Tokyo to include other regions and achieving the social model of disability. In particular, this study examined why and how non-host cities leveraged para-sport events for accessible tourism development.Design/methodology/approachWe conducted multiple case studies focusing on three non-host cities that engaged in the national initiative from Tokyo 2020. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with city employees from the authorities in October 2019 and the municipal council meeting minutes mentioning the initiative.FindingsThematic analysis identified contexts, strategic objectives, resources and means comprising the leveraging processes, differing from the previously suggested leveraging process. Notably, non-host cities embarked on leveraging when they realized alignment between their existing policies and the national initiative. Contrary to assumptions, our findings suggest that sport event leveraging does not always require pre-existing resources. This study also revealed the transfer of various resources (e.g. human, financial, social, image of the event) during the process. Additionally, non-host cities prioritize physical accessibility and a barrier-free mindset for accessible tourism development, diverging from typical sport event impacts on local tourism.Originality/valueThis research provides insights and lessons from Tokyo 2020, guiding future para-sport events. Focusing on the pre-event phase, our data not only enhances research quality by minimizing interviewee recall bias but also contributes to a deeper understanding of ongoing leveraging efforts.

Modeling Residents’ Mega Sport Event Social Value: Integrating Social and Economic Mechanisms

Social value is the difference between monetized social impacts and related economic investments. Stimulating positive social value is a leading concern and focus for sport event stakeholders. However, insights on this socioeconomic phenomenon have concentrated on social or economic mechanisms, not both, and are siloed to host city residents, largely overlooking nonhost city residents central to events. Thus, we integrated social and economic mechanisms to examine host city and nonhost city residents’ mega sport event social value. Data from 1,880 Canadians revealed varying social values (Vancouver and Provincial = negative; Venue-City = neutral; National = positive). Applying a reverse contingent valuation method, findings confirmed the need to integrate (monetized) social and economic mechanisms to calculate social value. Testing an augmented social exchange theory model, findings highlight residents’ perceptual ambivalence to social impacts and the importance of income to estimate social value. Stakeholders should effectively leverage events for social impacts and reconsider event public funding allocation policies.

WRC 2021 Croatia During the Pandemic: Do Environmental Consciousness and Place of Residence Affect Respondents' Perception of Impacts and Support?

Even when held during the COVID-19 pandemic, motorsport events can have a wide range of impacts on host communities. Based on the case of 2021 World Rally Championship race that was hosted in Zagreb, Croatia, this study examines whether respondents' level of environmental consciousness and place of residence influence perception of impact and support for the event and sport tourism. Four-hundred sixty-two valid responses were collected, of which 194 respondents were from Zagreb (host city) and 268 were from Rijeka (nonhost city). An exploratory factor analysis reduced the number of event impacts to seven factors. Social and indirect economic impacts outweighed direct economic impacts. Both environmentally conscious respondents and nonhost city residents perceive most impacts as more intense than less environmentally conscious respondents and host city residents. In particular, environmentally conscious nonhost residents tend to overestimate the impact of the event and give it the most support.

Covid-19流行下で直前合宿を受入れた非開催地の特徴と方法的示唆：

Covid-19流行下で直前合宿を受入れた非開催地の特徴と方法的示唆：

Residents’ Perceptions and Behavioral Intentions towards Mega-Sports Events: A Case Study of Beijing 2022 Olympic Winter Games

Despite growing research on the impacts of mega-sports events, comparative studies of the value perceptions of residents in host and non-host cities are rare. Residents’ perceptions are effective indicators of their behavioral intentions, which are crucial for the success of events and for the place marketing of hosting cities. To fill this gap, this study constructed a model linking residents’ expected impacts, perceived value and behavioral intentions for mega-sports events. Informed by Social Exchange Theory, this study employed Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze 1527 valid questionnaires collected in mainland China (412 in host cities, 1115 in non-host cities). The results reveal that non-host-city residents have more substantial expectations of impacts, perceptions of value, and behavioral intentions than host-city residents. Residents in Northeast China had the highest perceptions and behavioral intentions toward the Beijing 2022 Winter Olympics, implying that the geographical location of the non-host cities is an influencing factor. Researchers and practitioners should pay attention to those differences in research design and event planning to promote the sustainable development of mega-sports events.

The use of geographically weighted regression to improve information from satellite night light data in evaluating the economic effects of the 2010 FIFA World Cup

ABSTRACT Developing countries lack subnational data to assess mega-events. Accordingly, an economic proxy is developed to quantify city-level income growth of economies of the South African cities that hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup by performing a geographically weighted regression between night light data and total city-level income and using it to predict total income from 1992 to 2013. A panel data comparison of income growth in host and non-host cities revealed similar income growth. However, the cities that invested the most in building or renovating their stadia experienced 9% lower income growth than other host cities, suggesting the limited ability of the World Cup to stimulate economic growth and the presence of inefficient investment.

What Are the Benefits of Hosting a Sporting Mega Event? Evidence From Industrial Firms in China

It is acknowledged that the economic benefits of hosting a sporting mega event are overestimated and/or short lived. However, many studies neglect the impact of the industrial sector, preferring to focus on service sector activity. It is further claimed that hosting a sporting mega event funnels a nation’s resources into one specific region at the expense of others. Therefore, this article empirically investigates whether industrial firms in Beijing disproportionately (a) increased their invested capital ahead of the 2008 Olympic Games and (b) became more profitable after the Games relative to similar firms from comparable Chinese nonhost cities. Using a difference-in-difference estimation strategy, the authors find no disproportionate impact of the Olympic Games on Beijing firms’ invested capital or profitability.

Emotional change, satisfaction and attachment to a sport mega-event: The PyeongChang 2018 Winter Olympics

This empirical study investigated the perceived impacts of the PyeongChang 2018 Winter Olympics on emotional changes and support of residents hosting a mega-event. Pre- and post-event surveys with a homogeneous group were collected from 479 South Koreans who were residents or non-residents of the host region. A paired t-test was used to detect changes in satisfaction and positive affect from before to after the event. Additionally, a mixed linear modelling analyses were conducted where region and event attachment were treated as between-subject variables whereas time was treated as a within-subject variable. The results indicated a significant increase in residents' satisfaction with hosting the mega-event. For the results of positive affect, the levels of positive affect after the mega-event was significantly higher than before the mega-event. Specifically, the levels of host city residents' positive affect were significantly higher than non-host city residents' positive affect. Lastly, event attachment significantly predicted the levels of residents' positive affect, which indicates that people who were emotionally attached to the mega event experienced the higher levels of positive affect than their counterparts who were not emotionally attached.

Olympic Legacy: Status of Research

There is no doubt that the topic of legacy of sport events is becoming one of the critical issues in professional sports worldwide. Taxpayers’ money is used to support the staging of events and therefore citizens want a benefit in return. Many legacies though are intangible and therefore not easy to measure. As economic profits are difficult to obtain, ecological footprints are given due to needed travelling and social benefits are not easy to measure. Overall, the Olympic Games do not visibly and obviously change the host city towards sustainability and long-lasting positive developments. The articles reveal the breadth of topics that are located within the scope of legacy. The research areas touch on legacies that are under researched and for which there is scant legacy information in the literature, i.e., the legacy of Olympic Winter Games, Youth Olympic Winter Games, unsuccessful Olympic bid cities and non-host Olympic cities.

Delivering a sports participation legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: evidence from sport development workers in Birmingham and their experiences of a double-bind

ABSTRACT Legacy promises from London 2012 meant that those working in sport in local, non-host areas in Britain were expected to facilitate more sporting opportunities for local citizens. Legacy preparations occurred in the context of many other constraints that stemmed from Government budget cuts and provision of leisure-time sport and other leisure activities. This paper presents new evidence on a significantly under-researched area of leisure studies, namely: the experiences of those delivering leisure-sport opportunities in a non-host city and how they responded to national legacy promises. Using Elias’s concept of the double-bind, we explain the ‘crisis situation’ in which some local sports workers were enmeshed and how their acceptance of ‘fantasy-laden beliefs’ of expected demonstration effects from mega-events exacerbated their ‘crisis’. We also draw upon participants’ post-Games reflections to consider how future host nations may wish to leverage greater leisure-sporting legacies from a mega-event.

Non-Host City Olympic Legacies: The Case of Athens, Georgia and the 1996 Olympic Games

Given the need to use additional locations to host Olympic events beyond the host city, very little research investigates these ‘non-host cities’ and their resultant event legacies. As such, the purpose of this exploratory study was to develop a better understanding of non-host city legacies experienced in relation to the hosting of an edition of the Olympic Games. A case study focusing on Athens, Georgia and the 1996 Olympic Games held in Atlanta, USA was used to illustrate this particular phenomenon of interest. Findings revealed five emergent legacy themes: nostalgia, urban development, volunteering, community engagement, and sport development. Moreover, three major factors (planning approach, external factors, and image) created a different Games experience in Athens and thereby distinguished its legacies from ones created in Atlanta. Challenges and issues associated with providing event legacies in non-host cities are also discussed.

Investigating residents’ attitudes of 2016 Olympic Games

PurposeOlympic Games provide an arguably unparalleled amount of opportunities for the host city and country in relation to economic and socio-cultural growth and development. However, the achievement of such long-term success measures lies with the holistic involvement of community groups, specifically residents, in the planning of the mega event. The purpose of this paper is to examine the residents’ attitudes of the 2016 Olympic Games and to verify moderating effects of place of residence in support of the Games.Design/methodology/approachThe data were collected in Brazil in the months leading to the Rio Olympic Games using non-probabilistic convenience sampling. A total of 501 responses were collected prior to the opening ceremony of the event. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were applied.FindingsThe socio-cultural and economic dimensions had a positive and significant effect in support for the Olympic Games; however, the environmental dimension did not have such strong effect. Furthermore, differences between host and non-host city residents tested positive in support of the Olympic Games.Practical implicationsThis study aims to contribute to the developing application of country branding by examining attitudes of internal stakeholder groups in the form of residents.Originality/valueThis research presents a conceptual model to further establish the importance of such attitudes for organizers and government authorities involved with the bidding, planning and management of mega events from a country branding perspective, particularly in developing countries such as Brazil.

Estimating the Perceived Socio-Economic Impacts of Hosting Large-Scale Sport Tourism Events

Large-scale sport events help attract a wide range of attendees, resulting in various implications for the host community. This paper is concerned with understanding the legacy of the 13th EHF European Handball Championship, held in Croatia in January 2018, by assessing the event’s economic and social benefits and costs. Drawing on the Social Exchange Theory, it also examines if any significant differences exist between host city residents and non-host city residents regarding their perceived impacts of this event on the host cities. The number of impacts was reduced by Exploratory Factor Analysis. Differences between host city and non-host city residents were examined by an independent samples t-test. The results suggest that community development and pride, security risks, traffic problems, economic benefits, environmental concerns, and economic costs are the main impact dimensions. Non-host city residents expressed a higher level of agreement with most of the impacts, but significant differences exist primarily within the dimensions of community development and pride, economic benefits, traffic problems, and environmental concerns. These findings could benefit event planners and sport marketers when trying to acquire community-wide support and to better understand how residents perceive both the positive and negative impacts that events generate.

The expected social impact of the Winter Olympic Games and the attitudes of non-host residents toward bidding

PurposeUsing Beijing’s bid for the 2022 Winter Olympic Games as an example, the purpose of this paper is to explore the expected social impact of mega-sporting events, as perceived by non-host city residents, and the way in which this perception affects attitudes toward bidding.Design/methodology/approachAn empirical survey study was conducted in which data were collected from residents in Shanghai, comprising a sample of 483 respondents. An exploratory factor analysis identified 40 items loaded on eight distinctive factors that underlie the expected social impact of the 2022 Winter Olympic Games. A multiple regression analysis was conducted to determine the effect of the perceived impact on residents’ attitudes toward the bid to host the Olympics.FindingsAmong the eight identified impact factors, six were found to be positive and two negative. While all factors were significantly higher above the point of indifference, perceived positive impact factors tended to outweigh those that were negative. In addition, seven out of the eight factors were found to be significantly predictive of support for Beijing’s bidding: while the effect of “tourism and environment,” “social capital and psychic income,” “international cooperation and exchange,” “infrastructure,” “national image,” and “sport development” was positive, the effect of the “higher living cost” factor was negative with regard to the support of the bidding. This study seeks to contribute by taking a non-host community perspective.Originality/valueA growing body of literature has documented perspectives on events and their specific timing during event cycles, i.e., during the bidding stage. In addition, it also offers insight into the perception and attitudes of citizens from emerging markets toward event bidding and hosting, both of which play an increasingly important role in global sports but, on the whole, remain relatively under researched.

Developing leveraging strategies for pre-Games training for mega-events in non-host cities

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore how non-host cities strategically plan to leverage pre-Games training for the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games to maximize benefits to the city.Design/methodology/approachEight semi-structured interviews were conducted with key tourism and government stakeholders involved in developing leveraging strategies for pre-Games training in a non-host city. Interviews were conducted a little over 18 months before the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games.FindingsA model of the strategic planning of leveraging pre-Games training is presented. Pre-Games training was positioned as a leverageable resource. The non-host city was well positioned to host pre-Games training given its existing sport focus and facilities and its proximity to the host city and its similar climate. Opportunities, objectives, means, and considerations were constantly developed. The city strategically targeted teams to maximize the use of the training facilities and make the most of the value of well-known athletes, while being cautious of overcrowding. The teams had to be secured before strategies were devised to achieve other opportunities and objectives. Short-term benefits included generating tourism through visiting teams and entourages and integrating visiting teams into the local community through education and sport programming. Long-term benefits included building the destination’s capacity and reputation as a place for elite training camps and tourism.Practical implicationsUnderstanding how to develop strategies to leverage pre-Games training can inform those responsible for developing and implementing pre-Games training strategies and lead to maximizing the benefits to a city or region.Originality/valueLimited research has examined the strategic planning process used to develop tactics to leverage mega-events. This study provides insight into the strategic planning process of non-host cities to increase short- and long-term benefits by leveraging pre-Games training.

Mega Sporting Events, Real Estate, and Urban Social Economics The Case of Brazil 2014/2016

These events promise to improve the urban quality of life and to induce social legacy because of investments in urban infrastructure, transportation, and sporting facilities. Our analysis of the case of Brazil, especially in Rio de Janeiro (host of the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games) shows that such benefits may differ locally and may accentuate the process of socio-spatial segregation. Urban projects often include forced evictions of low-income populations and the consequent expansion of social segregation. In public opinion, mega events are also responsible for increasing rents and (real estate) prices. However, such inflationary phenomenon occurs in most Brazilian cities, including non-host cities. The appreciation of real estate is explained largely by population and economic growth and the reduction of interest rates through mortgage programs, as well as reduced social inequality. Public investments in mega events account for only approximately 0.15% of Brazilian GDP from 2007 to 2016 and are thus too small to be responsible for the (increasing) social problems. Obviously, the perceived lack of public accountability for mega event finances as well as the perceived lack of susceptibility to social issues by the mega sporting projects may harm the public opinion of mega events. International sporting federations should thus have every interest in ensuring that their mega events target social inclusion and pay more attention to the needs of local urban and social policies.

Hospital Dental Treatment for Special Health Care Needs Patients in Minas Gerais state, Brazil: A Cluster Analysis

Objective: To describe and group some demographic and healthcare characteristics of hospital dental care for the special health care needs population. Material and Methods: Cross-sectional census survey with a total of 1,063 visits with special health care need patients under general anesthesia or sedation at the Brazilian Health System Minas Gerais, Brazil, over 12 months. Clinical diagnosis was divided into “mental and behavioral disorders and diseases of the nervous system” and “others”. Age group, gender, clinical diagnosis and care by a general dentist were submitted to descriptive and multivariate cluster analysis. The analysis was performed using the software SPSS version 19.0. Results: Cluster 1 (N=173) had no ICD codes for nervous system (NS) diseases and mental and behavioral disorders. Clusters 2 (N=564) and 3 (N=326) are quite similar except for gender distribution. Cluster 1 was 3.5 times more frequent among non-host cities than HER host cities. Dental treatment was mostly performed on males diagnosed with mental and behavioral disorders and diseases of the NS who were over the age of 25 years and were seen by general dentists. The clusters were distributed unevenly between EHR host and non-host cities. Conclusion: Non-host performed more frequently treatment for patients with no mental and behavioral disorders and diseases of the NS than EHR host cities.

Using equity theory to understand non-host city residents’ perceptions of a mega-event

ABSTRACTThis study draws on equity theory to understand non-host city residents’ perceptions of a mega-event and the corresponding host city. In-depth interviews were conducted with 14 residents of the non-host city three years prior to the commencement of the 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games. Results revealed that while non-host community residents believed the host city would receive an increased level of funding for hosting the event, they did not perceive this funding as an inequity. Rather, residents of the non-host city compared the two cities on the basis of the tourism product, and stated their belief that the core advantage of their city’s tourism product was that it was less developed. The non-host city residents therefore viewed receiving further resources for development as both unnecessary and undesirable. The findings are consistent with the tenets of equity theory, which suggests that tensions were absent because inequity was not felt.

Engaging Volunteers From Regional Communities: Non-Host City Resident Perceptions Towards a Mega-Event and the Opportunity to Volunteer

Sport events can be leveraged by a number of different stakeholders. The current research positions a mega-event as a leverageable asset within a regional community outside of the host city. Specifically, this study investigated regional community (i.e., Townsville) resident perceptions of a mega-event (i.e., 2018 Commonwealth Games) to be hosted elsewhere in the state (i.e., The Gold Coast). Nonhost city resident perceptions towards the event and towards the potential of volunteering at the event were explored 4 years before the event. Data were collected through interviews and focus groups within the non-host city. The results revealed an existent rivalry between the host and non-host community, and a perceived lack of benefit to the non-host region. Further, non-host city resident perceptions towards volunteering at the event included: travel constraints, lack of awareness, volunteer packages, national pride, once in a lifetime experience, and meeting new people from overseas. The results provide implications for managers and government funders of mega-sport events to provide benefits to regional communities. Further, the results provide implications for volunteer managers at mega-sport events to engage members from regional communities through volunteering.

Legacy of the Beijing Olympic Games: a non-host city perspective

Research question: This paper examines the legacy of the Beijing Olympics perceived by non-host city residents almost five years after the Games and how that perception would affect attitude towards the hosting of the Games.Research methods: An empirical survey study was conducted in which data were collected from 468 residents of Shanghai through structured questionnaires. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) identified seven factors underlying the perceived legacy of the Beijing Olympics: ‘Psychic income and social capital’, ‘Infrastructure and skills development’, ‘Networks and cooperation’, ‘Environment’, ‘Tourism and economics’, ‘Sport and health’ and ‘Identity and culture’.Results and findings: The findings demonstrate that the level of perceived legacy was significantly above the mid-point on all of the dimensions. In contrast, existing literature in western context demonstrated that on many dimensions values were below the mid-point, suggesting that the economic and cultural backgrounds of residents would make a difference. The paper also confirmed that perceived legacy would positively affect residents' attitude towards the hosting of Olympic Games, further highlighting the importance of continuous legacy leverage of Olympics.Implications: Evidence from this study points to the danger of underestimating the effort required by event planners to harness legacy and shift perception of host city image. More needs to be done, post securing event rights, to communicate with national and international audiences particularly in the developing world.