Nonhandicapped Infants Research Articles

Maternal Directiveness and Infant Compliance at One Year of Age: A Comparison Between Mothers and Their Developmentally‐Delayed Infants and Mothers and Their Nondelayed Infants

Maternal directiveness and infant compliance at one year of age were observed in social interactions between mothers and their handicapped and nonhandicapped infants. Eleven nondelayed, typically developing infants, and nine developmentally delayed infants, matched for chronological age, were observed in a free play situation with their mothers. Mothers of the delayed infants attempted to direct their children's play significantly more than those with nondelayed infants, and they engaged more frequently in social play involving physical contact with their infants. Nondelayed infants complied with their mothers' directives more than the developmentally delayed infants. Further study of infant capabilities and maternal affect and behaviors with this age group is suggested.

Temperament, conditioning, and memory in 3-month-old infants with Down syndrome

Three-month-old infants with Down syndrome and same-aged nonhandicapped infants learned to move an overhead crib mobile by kicking their feet. Subjects' mothers completed the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ), a measure of infant temperament. For the infants with Down syndrome, response rate during conditioning was positively correlated with maternal ratings of activity level. Negative correlations were obtained between maternal ratings of fear and smiling and laughter and the amount of mobile movement produced by the infants with Down syndrome during conditioning relative to their baseline rate of kicking. No significant correlations were obtained for the nonhandicapped infants between their IBQ ratings and various indices of conditioning and 1-week retention. In addition, no differences were found between the infants with Down syndrome and the nonhandicapped infants on any temperament scale. These findings indicate that the reactivity of the young infant with Down syndrome in response to external stimulation is related to his or her learning performance. Furthermore, unlike at older ages during infancy, at 3 months of age, the emotional profile of the infant with Down syndrome and the nonhandicapped infant is very similar.

Understanding communicative cues of infants with down syndrome: Effects of mothers' experience and infants' age

Eighty mothers, half with Down syndrome (DS) infants and half with non-handicapped (NH) infants, were asked to watch videotaped segments of infants, half of whom were DS and half of whom were NH. Infants were matched for mental ages (MA) of 7, 10, and 16 months. Mothers were instructed to push a button whenever infants acted in a way they found salient, a measure which we believe reflects infant readability. Controlling for maternal education, mothers of DS infants noted more acts overall than mothers of NH infants. Only at 7 months MA were DS infants seen as less readable than NH infants. All mothers found infants, both DS and NH, more readable with age. These results provide justification for intervening early with parents of DS infants, helping parents identify the more subtle nature of the preverbal cuing of their young infants.

Object play and exploration of handicapped and nonhandicapped infants

During the first year of life, normally developing infants progress from single to multiple object play, from indiscriminate to discriminate use of objects, and from nonsymbolic to symbolic play. The object play behaviors which define this developmental progression were examined in 20 handicapped infants (mean CA = 11 months; mean DA = 7.7 months) and in 20 nonhandicapped infants. The nonhandicapped infants were seen twice—once when the mean developmental age matched that of the handicapped group, and once when the mean chronological age matched that of the handicapped group. The infants were videotaped during 20 minutes of play with their mothers in a controlled environment. Infant play was coded with a modified version of the coding scheme employed by Belsky and Most (1981) who reported that the categories defined a developmental sequence of play. Results revealed that the types and levels of object exploration and play which have been observed in nonhandicapped infants in this and other studies were observed in the handicapped infants at comparable developmental ages. The amount of time spent in object play, however, was less for the handicapped group than for the nonhandicapped group when the groups were of the same mean developmental age and of the same mean chronological age. Play level was positively related to developmental age for each group of infants at each assessment.

Sequence of development of postural reactions by infants with Down syndrome.

The sequential development of postural reactions was examined in 20 infants with Down syndrome aged two to 24 months, and was compared to the sequence for non-handicapped infants. Protective reactions appeared relatively earlier in the sequential pattern for infants with Down syndrome than for non-handicapped infants. The study documents dissimilar sequences of postural reaction development for the two infant groups. The data suggest that both the delay and the dissimilar sequence of postural reactions should be considered when evaluating the motor development and movement quality of infants with Down syndrome.

Independent sitting development and the emergence of associated motor components.

The purpose of this preliminary study was to examine the relationship between the emergence of independent sitting ability and the presence of underlying motor components (reflexes, automatic postural reactions, and flexion and extension movement patterns). Ten full-term, nonhandicapped infants were tested longitudinally for the presence of underlying motor components as they attained three performance levels of sitting ability between the ages of 4 and 7 months. A total of 26 observations was collected across the 10 infants. The time of each testing session was based on the infants' attainment of each successive sitting performance level. Underlying motor components were assessed at each testing session to determine whether a consistent sequence of component emergence developed and whether those components were associated with a specific performance level of sitting. The results indicated that no consistent sequential pattern of motor component emergence existed. The data showed that the pattern of underlying component emergence was highly variable across the infants at similar levels of sitting ability, although some components were associated highly with specific performance levels. The data suggest that the attainment of independent sitting in nonhandicapped infants is described best as a continuous developmental process, rather than a discontinuous "stage" phenomenon.

Interaction Between Mothers and Infants with Down Syndrome

Studies of mother-infant dyads indicate that individual differences of both partners contribute to the development of reciprocal interaction. When an infant is born with Down Syndrome, infant responses are reported to be delayed. Infant characteristics that contribute to social interaction with caregivers differ between nonhandicapped infants and those with Down syndrome. In this review, studies of infant characteristics, including temperament, state control, gaze, gesture, and vocalization, are discussed. Although infants with Down syndrome, like nonhandicapped infants, develop social communication behaviors, vulnerable characteristics are found. Differences in the development of state control, gaze patterns, coordination of gesture, gaze, vocalization, and frequency of vocalization have implications for parents and professionals in early intervention.

Sequential analyses of postural reactions in nonhandicapped infants.

The purpose of this study was to identify an empirically validated sequence of automatic postural reactions in a sample of 40 nonhandicapped infants. Using a cross-sectional design, we tested infants between the ages of 2 and 10 months for the presence of full and partial righting, equilibrium, and protective reactions. Two types of sequential analyses were performed. The Thurstone absolute scaling technique identified an age-related sequence, and the scalogram technique yielded a measure of the variability of the sequence. The sequence of postural reactions defined in this study is in general agreement with the sequence reported in previous clinical reports, although some differences in ordering are noted. A consistency index of .727 indicated that the sequence of postural reactions had fairly good predictive ability. This study contributes a data-based sequential model of postural reactions and an indication of the degree of sequential variability in the order of emergence of postural reactions in nonhandicapped infants. Definition of the sequence and the observed variability in nonhandicapped infants is an initial step in the understanding of the processes underlying the development of postural reactions.

Aspects of early social smiling by infants with Down's syndrome.

Smiling by five Down's syndrome and seven nonhandicapped infants was recorded longitudinally during face-to-face interactions with their mothers over the first 6 months of the infants' lives. Two conditions, 'mobile' (mothers were asked to talk to the baby as naturally as possible) and 'immobile' (silent and maintain an impassive face), were contrasted. Between-group comparisons confirmed previous findings of significantly delayed emergence and less frequent smiling by the infants with Down's syndrome. Their smiles were also found to be shorter, and less discriminative between the two face-to-face conditions. The non-handicapped infants showed significantly more cry/distress vocalizations in the immobile than in the mobile condition, while the reverse was found for the Down's syndrome infants. A close temporal association between smiling and eye contact with mothers was found for both groups of infants. In a free interaction condition, mothers of the Down's syndrome babies showed a stronger tendency to use kinaesthetic and tactile stimulation than mothers of the non-handicapped infants.

Mother-infant engagements in dyads with handicapped and nonhandicapped infants: a pilot study.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of a handicapping condition on mother-infant interactions and, to investigate the conditions under which coordinated attention to an object and a person is demonstrated. This study provides a unique opportunity to make across-mother and within-mother comparisons of mother-infant interactions in two sets of fraternal twins. In each set, one infant was handicapped whereas the other was nonhandicapped. Microanalyses of several aspects of mother-infant free-play sessions showed that handicapped infants emitted fewer object-directed behaviors, had fewer instances in which their leads were followed, and spent relatively little time in joint attention with mother. The data also suggest that repetitive sequences with an object may be an important context in which coordinated attention is demonstrated.

Postural reactions in infants with Down syndrome. Relationship to motor milestone development and age.

I examined the emergence of automatic postural reactions (righting, equilibrium, and protective reactions) in a group of infants with Down syndrome and in a developmentally matched group of nonhandicapped infants. I assessed the relationship of postural reactions to chronological age and to motor milestone development (as measured by the Bayley Scales of Infant Development). The relationship of postural reactions to chronological age was weaker in the infants with Down syndrome; a regression analysis revealed a slower rate of postural reaction development evident at an age of about five months and older in infants with Down syndrome. The association between postural reactions and motor milestone performance was remarkably similar for both infant groups in degree of association and pattern across the span of motor development tested. The results indicated that, even though the rate of development differed, the association between postural reactions and motor milestones was similar in normal and delayed development. These results support the current rationale that promotes intervention efforts focusing on the facilitation of postural reactions to enhance motor milestone development in infants with Down syndrome.

Infant Special Education: Interactions with Objects

Nonhandicapped infants exhibit a number of manual strategies in their explorations that are suited to examining the salient aspects of particular objects. With maturity, simple strategies, such as mouthing, are replaced by more complex behaviors, such as fingering object surfaces, transferring objects from one hand to the other, and rotating the object with both hands. High-risk pre-terms exhibit the complex strategies less than full-terms and low-risk pre-terms. Object manipulation at 9 months predicted Bayley Mental Scale scores at 24 months. Suitable interventions can enhance the development of manipulation skills.

Teaching Postural Reactions to Students with Severe Cerebral Palsy: An Evaluation of Theory and Technique

Neuromotor intervention approaches, based on central nervous system development among nonhandicapped infants and young children, are presently the most popular motor training approaches with cerebral palsied children. Empirical data in support of neuromotor or other approaches to motor training, however, are lacking. In response to the absence of a data base, the theoretical basis and effectiveness of a neuromotor intervention was investigated across seven cerebral palsied, severely handicapped children, ages 2 1/2 to 12 years. Results suggested a training effect in the data of three children. Theoretical relationships among abnormal tonic reflexes and normal motor patterns were not supported by the data. Because results were not consistent across all children, it was suggested that future research focus on subject characteristics that may relate to the effectiveness of intervention. Additionally, recommendations were made regarding measurement systems for evaluating change, and strategies for investigating multicomponent training procedures.

Social Characteristics of Visually Impaired Infants' Play

This cross-sectional study explores the extent to which the visually impaired infant and mother are able to use play to facilitate rewarding social interactions. Mother-child interactions were observed in 21 visually impaired infants and 16 nonhandicapped infants. From videotape ratings of five child behaviors and five maternal behaviors, significant differences were found in several variables. Visually impaired infants demonstrated fewer periods of positive vocalization and positive responses to the mother, fewer social initiations to the mother, more negative vocalizations, more periods of negative affect, and more ignoring of the mother than did the controls. Mothers of visually impaired infants demonstrated less en-facing positioning, fewer positive vocalizations, and more periods of neutral vocalizations than did the mothers of nonhandicapped children.

What do babies listen to most? A developmental study of auditory preferences in nonhandicapped infants and infants with Down's syndrome.

The auditory preferences of 10 infants with Down's syndrome and 10 nonhandicapped infants were studied at the developmental ages of around 9 months and 18 months. We used an apparatus that allows infants to choose to listen to one of a pair of auditory stimuli and that records their responses. At both ages, an infant had the choice of listening first to either a children's rhyme or a repetitive tone, and second to either the mother talking to her own child (baby talk) or the mother talking to an adult. At both ages, both groups of infants significantly preferred to listen to the children's rhyme and to the baby talk. At the developmental age of 9 months, both groups listened significantly more to nursery rhymes than to spoken stimuli; by 18 months, nonhandicapped infants showed a significant increase in listening to baby talk, which they then listened to longer than to rhymes. Infants with Down's syndrome showed a significant decrease in listening to baby talk at this age and still listened longer to rhymes. Implications for further research and intervention are discussed. Several studies have noted that expressive language is delayed in children with Down's syndrome and that there is a long plateau of little observable development between the first few words and the appearance of twoand three-word phrases. Rondal (1982) noted that meaningful speech does not appear before 24 months of age, at which time it is less than 5% of all utterances, and it increases only slowly up to 4 years of age. What is not clear is how these delays relate to the reception and comprehension of speech and what is the effective speech environment of the young child. Such information is required to inform intervention efforts with mentally handicapped children (Butterfield & Cairns, 1976).

What do babies listen to most? A developmental study of auditory preferences in nonhandicapped infants and infants with Down's syndrome.

What do babies listen to most? A developmental study of auditory preferences in nonhandicapped infants and infants with Down's syndrome.

Recognition of the familiar words of nursery rhymes by handicapped and non-handicapped infants.

Nine infants with Down's syndrome (mean MA, 9.1 months), seven non-handicapped infants (mean MA, 9.6 months) and one severely handicapped infant (MA, 9.5 months) were given the choice of listening to familiar nursery rhymes or to the same rhymes with each word reversed such that the rhythms, intonation and stress patterns were kept intact but the words were nonsense. Six infants with Down's syndrome, five non-handicapped infants and the severely handicapped infant had significant preferences for the familiar rhymes, and the strength of this preference increased with increasing mental age. The results suggest that both handicapped and non-handicapped infants are beginning to recognise familial words of nursery rhymes at this age. The relevance of the results for early intervention procedures is discussed.

A Study of Auditory Preferences in Nonhandicapped Infants and Infants with down's Syndrome

A Study of Auditory Preferences in Nonhandicapped Infants and Infants with down's Syndrome

A Study of Auditory Preferences in Nonhandicapped Infants and Infants with Down's Syndrome

11 infants with Down's syndrome (MA 9.2 months, CA 12.7 months) and 10 of 11 nonhandicapped infants (MA 9.6 months, CA 9.3 months) demonstrated that they could operate an automated device which enabled them to choose to listen to 1 of a pair of auditory signals. All subjects showed preferential responding. Both groups of infants showed a significant preference for nursery rhymes sung by a female voice rather than played on musical instruments. The infants with Down's syndrome had much longer response durations for the more complex auditory stimuli. The apparatus provides a useful technique for studying language development in both normal and abnormal populations.