Non-group Members Research Articles

Chemical Profiles Differ between Communal Breeding Groups in a Highly Social Bird.

AbstractGregarious species must distinguish group members from nongroup members. Olfaction is important for group recognition in social insects and mammals but rarely studied in birds, despite birds using olfaction in social contexts from species discrimination to kin recognition. Olfactory group recognition requires that groups have a signature odor, so we tested for preen oil and feather chemical similarity in group-living smooth-billed anis (Crotophaga ani). Physiology affects body chemistry, so we also tested for an effect of egg-laying competition, as a proxy for reproductive status, on female chemical similarity. Finally, the fermentation hypothesis for chemical recognition posits that host-associated microbes affect host odor, so we tested for covariation between chemicals and microbiota. Group members were more chemically similar across both body regions. We found no chemical differences between sexes, but females in groups with less egg-laying competition had more similar preen oil, suggesting that preen oil contains information about reproductive status. There was no overall covariation between chemicals and microbes; instead, subsets of microbes could mediate olfactory cues in birds. Preen oil and feather chemicals showed little overlap and may contain different information. This is the first demonstration of group chemical signatures in birds, a finding of particular interest given that smooth-billed anis live in nonkin breeding groups. Behavioral experiments are needed to test whether anis can distinguish group members from nongroup members using odor cues.

Collective overclaiming is related to collective narcissism and numeracy.

When asked to estimate how much their state or nation has contributed to history, people typically provide unreasonably large estimates, claiming that their group has contributed much more to history than nongroup members would estimate, demonstrating collective overclaiming. Why does such overclaiming occur? In the current study we examined factors that might predict collective overclaiming. Participants from 12 U.S. states estimated how much their home state contributed to U.S. history, completed measures of collective narcissism and numeracy, and rated the importance of 60 specific historical events. There was a positive relationship between collective overclaiming and collective narcissism, a negative relationship between collective overclaiming and numeracy, and a positive relationship between collective overclaiming and the importance ratings of the specific events. Together, these results indicate that overclaiming is partially and positively related to collective narcissism and negatively related to people's ability to work with numbers. We conclude that collective overclaiming is likely determined by several factors, including the availability heuristic and ego protection mechanisms, in addition to collective narcissism and relative innumeracy.

Symbiotic microbiota vary with breeding group membership in a highly social joint-nesting bird

Abstract Symbiotic microbes affect the health, fitness, and behavior of their animal hosts, and can even affect the behavior of non-hosts. Living in groups presents numerous benefits and challenges to social animals, including exposure to symbiotic microbes, which can mediate both cooperation and competition. In social mammals, individuals from the same social group tend to share more similar microbes and this social microbiome, the microbial community of all hosts in the same social group, can shape the benefits and costs of group living. In contrast, little is known about the social microbiome of group living birds. We tested the predictions that communally breeding smooth-billed anis (Crotophaga ani) belonging to the same breeding group share more similar microbes and that microbial community composition differs between body regions. To test this, we used 16S rRNA gene sequencing to characterize the preen gland and body feather microbiota of adult birds from 16 breeding groups at a long-term study site in southwestern Puerto Rico. As predicted, individuals from the same breeding group shared more similar microbiota than non-group members and preen gland and body feathers harbored distinct microbial communities. Future research will evaluate whether this social microbiome affects the behavior of group living birds.

Musical engagement as a duet of tight synchrony and loose interpretability.

Joint engagement in music often facilitates positive social interaction, effectively shifting participants' perspective from the individual to the collective. The result is tight coordination and uniformity between participants, but at the same time, also remarkable flexibility and creativity. How does music achieve such a fine balance between the strict alignment necessary for coordination, and the substantial latitude necessary for experimentation? To address this question, I propose to analyze joint music engagement within the tight-loose theoretical framework broadly used in the social sciences. Tight-loose theory was originally developed for distinguishing between two archetypical cultural tendencies. On the one hand, tightness, which denotes stringent adherence to social norms, and on the other hand, looseness, which refers to a more flexible and less restrictive attitude towards norms. I posit that the flexible form of collaboration characteristic of musical interaction is due to a coexistence of tightness and looseness within joint engagement in music. I argue that the tight aspects of music can be attributed to its rhythmic structure, which requires continuous and precise temporal alignment between participants. Indeed, when experienced on its own, outside of a musical context, interpersonal synchrony has been repeatedly shown to enhance diverse positive social capacities such as bonding, collaboration and affiliation between interacting individuals, but at the expense of increasing conformity, blind obedience and even hostility towards non-group members. These effects are consistent with synchrony driving a tight interaction, inducing a sense of common group membership (CGM), which can endow music with necessary rigor and order. In contrast, the loose side of music may pertain to the ambiguity in meaning and intention expressed by music, which leaves ample room for interpretation and improvisation. I thus propose that the combined tight-loose nature of music, can simultaneously enhance positive social behaviors and reduce negative ones, leading to a tolerant form of group membership (TGM).

Living in a Fishbowl or Not: The Role of Transparency and Privacy in Creative Dialogues on Enterprise Social Media

Transparency—the observability of activities, behaviors, and performance—is often treated as a panacea for modern management. Yet there is a conundrum in the literature, with some studies suggesting that transparency may benefit group creativity and others suggesting that privacy may do so. A similar conundrum exists regarding the effects of different social capital types—structural holes vs. network cohesion—on group creativity. Enterprise social media (ESM) provide a unique opportunity to solve these conundrums by allowing groups to be “transparent” (non-group members can observe and/or participate in group activities) or “private” (group members and activities are hidden from the community) and enabling groups to develop distinct social capital structures. Using data from 28,083 written interactions produced by 109 transparent and 106 private groups in an ESM of a multinational design firm, we found strong support for our contingency hypotheses that both transparent and private groups may produce high levels of creative dialogues, yet in different forms. Specifically, expansion-focused creative dialogues— those focused on combining or expanding existing concepts—emerge in transparent groups, but only when the group’s social capital is characterized by structural holes. Conversely, we found that reframingfocused dialogues—those focused on challenging and rethinking—emerge in private groups but only when the group’s social capital is characterized by network cohesion. Theoretically, these findings can help to solve the conundrums in the literature on group creativity and shed light on the role of ESM use in this context. Practically, our findings offer a critical reflection o contemporary initiatives for increasing transparency, whether through physical design or digital transformation.

A pachyderm perfume: odour encodes identity and group membership in African elephants

Group-living animals that live in complex social systems require effective modes of communication to maintain social cohesion, and several acoustic, olfactory and visual signaling systems have been described. Individuals need to discriminate between in- and out-group odour to both avoid inbreeding and to identify recipients for reciprocal behaviour. The presence of a unique group odour, identified in several social mammals, is a proposed mechanism whereby conspecifics can distinguish group from non-group members. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) live in stable, socially complex, multi-female, fission–fusion groups, characterized by female philopatry, male dispersal and linear dominance hierarchies. Elephant social behaviour suggests that individuals use odour to monitor the sex, reproductive status, location, health, identity and social status of conspecifics. To date, it is not clear what fixed or variable information is contained in African elephant secretions, and whether odour encodes kinship or group membership information. Here we use SPME GC–MS generated semiochemical profiles for temporal, buccal and genital secretions for 113 wild African elephants and test their relationship with measures of genetic relatedness. Our results reveal the existence of individual identity odour profiles in African elephants as well as a signature for age encoded in temporal gland and buccal secretions. Olfactory signatures for genetic relatedness were found in labial secretions of adult sisters. While group odour was not correlated with group genetic relatedness, our analysis identified “group membership” as a significant factor explaining chemical differences between social groups. Saturated and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), derived from key volatile compounds from bacterial fermentation, were identified in temporal, buccal and genital secretions suggesting that group odour in African elephants may be the result of bacterial elements of the gut microbiome. The frequent affiliative behavior of African elephants is posited as a likely mechanism for bacterial transmission. Our findings favour flexible group-specific bacterial odours, which have already been proposed for other social mammals and present a useful form of olfactory communication that promotes bond group cohesion among non-relatives in fission–fusion mammals.

Modelling and simulating serpentine group behaviour in crowds using modified social force model

Crowd dynamics has emerged as an important topic of investigation in recent years. Several studies have been conducted to better understand the underlying factors that can influence crowd dynamics and lead to risky situations. Particularly, field studies are essential for realistically capturing the dynamics. This paper attempts to uncover one intriguing behaviour observed in the world’s largest mass religious gathering Kumbh Mela-2016, held in Ujjain, India. The authors define this behaviour, where groups attempt to overtake the others in the crowd, form flexible chains, and not allow non-group members to penetrate through them, as serpentine group behaviour. This behaviour has been modelled and simulated using a modified social force model which has been developed in this work. This can aid in the development of a realistic crowd simulation model that can handle such unique crowd behaviours and help manage large crowds and ensure safe movement.

Energy justice and the co-opting of indigenous narratives in U.S. offshore wind development

The possibility of substantial offshore wind energy development in the United States (U.S.) is rapidly advancing. Several offshore wind projects have been proposed proximate to federally-recognized tribal territory. Historically marginalized, indigenous communities have for centuries experienced injustices during the expansion of the U.S. energy system. Few studies have systematically examined the responses of indigenous communities to offshore wind, and little is known about the ways that indigenous concerns are leveraged by non-members to advance a position advocating for or against offshore development. In this study, we examine the discourses that surround indigenous communities through legally mandated decision-making processes for two proposed offshore wind projects in the northeast U.S. We show that narratives surrounding indigenous stakeholders in the offshore wind scoping process can be thematically identified as: 1. religious, cultural, and spiritual value, 2. land and identity, and 3. process and procedures. However, the concerns and perspectives of indigenous communities are mostly brought forth by non-group members, and were found to be leveraged or diminished by non-indigenous individuals pushing anti- or pro-offshore wind sentiment. This reveals the finding that indigenous concerns are being co-opted or sidelined through formal and legal decision-making processes in the U.S. The results indicate that the formal consultation process failed to meet standards of energy justice by inadvertently giving outsize voice to lesser impacted communities. Therefore, our study cautions that energy justice is not achieved solely through “inclusive” processes and decision-makers should be diligent in considering the multi-faceted aspects of justice.

Facebook Support Groups for Pediatric Rare Diseases: Cross-Sectional Study to Investigate Opportunities, Limitations, and Privacy Concerns.

BackgroundBecause of the nature of rare diseases with affected individuals being widely geographically dispersed, finding an in-person/offline support group itself can be a challenge. Affected individuals therefore turn to social networking platforms such as Facebook for online support groups.ObjectiveWe aim to put into perspective the opportunities Facebook offers as a tool for pediatric rare disease support groups by investigating its use, advantages, and limitations including privacy concerns. We analyze group accessibility and usage, advantages specific to rare diseases, perceived privacy, and views on using Facebook for communication between health professionals and parents, pharmaceutical companies, and study recruitment.MethodsWe contacted 12 Facebook support groups for 12 respective rare diseases with pediatric onset and invited group members to participate in a cross-sectional online survey.ResultsOf 231 respondents, 87.0% (n=201) of respondents were female, 12.6% (n=29) were male, and 0.4% reported another sex (n=1). Respondents’ mean age was 41.56 years (SD 9.375); 91.3% (n=211) of respondents were parents (183 mothers, 27 fathers, 1 other sex); 59.7% (n=138) reported a self-initiated search for the Facebook group, 24.2% (n=56) received recommendations from their health professionals, and 12.6% (n=29) recommendations from someone else affected by the disease. On average, support group members visited Facebook at least once a day, visited and passively participated (read/liked posts) several times a week, and participated actively (commented/posted) once a month. As much as 79.2% (183/231) agreed that they would like to have health professionals as members of the respective Facebook group. Group members expressed more concern about privacy issues on Facebook in general than in their respective Facebook support groups, with concerns mostly related to Facebook itself and nongroup members.ConclusionsOur study confirmed that Facebook enhances support group accessibility for parents of children with rare diseases. Group participants perceive a reduction and elimination of distance, a common challenge in rare disease, and Facebook support groups create an environment of perceived privacy. The group’s privacy setting can be a critical factor for active support group participation. Sharing personal information and pictures on Facebook is very common among group participants, which shows the importance of discussing and protecting children’s privacy rights in this context.Trial RegistrationGerman Clinical Trials Register DRKS00016067; https://www.drks.de/drks_web/navigate.do?navigationId=trial.HTML&TRIAL_ID=DRKS00016067

Better together: How group-based physical activity protects against depression

Against the backdrop of evidence that physical activity can protect against depression, there has been growing interest in the mechanisms through which this relationship operates (e.g., biological adaptations), and the factors that might moderate it (e.g., physical activity intensity). However, no attempt has been made to examine whether, or through what mechanisms, depression-related benefits might arise from belonging to groups that engage in physical activity. Across two studies, we addressed these shortcomings by (a) examining whether engaging in physical activity specifically in the context of sport or exercise groups protects against depression and (b) testing two pathways through which benefits might arise: greater physical activity and reduced loneliness. Study 1 (N = 4549) used data from three waves of a population study of older adults residing in England. Sport or exercise group membership predicted fewer depression symptoms four years later. This relationship was underpinned by sport or exercise group members engaging in physical activity more frequently and feeling less lonely. Clinical depression rates were almost twice as high among non-group members than group members. Study 2 (N = 635) included Australian adults who were members of sport and exercise groups, recruited during the enforced suspension of all group-based sport and exercise due to COVID-19 restrictions. The more sport or exercise groups participants had lost physical access to, the more severe their depression symptoms. Clinical depression rates were over twice as high among those who had lost access to >2 groups compared to those who had lost access to <2 groups. The relationship between number of groups lost and depression symptom severity was mediated by greater loneliness, but not by overall physical activity. Overall, findings suggest that belonging to groups that engage in physical activity can protect against depression, and point to the value of initiatives that aim to promote people's engagement in such groups.

Heterogeneous welfare effects of farmer groups in smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa

This paper analyses the heterogeneous effects of membership of a farmer group on access to water, use of inorganic fertiliser, household incomes, and farm asset holdings. A sample of 401 irrigators in South Africa was analysed using propensity score matching. The study found that group membership had a positive effect on all four outcomes. Group members had an extra four days of access to water in a month, and applied at least 130 kg/ha more inorganic fertiliser, than non-group members. Group members had a higher household income per capita and more assets than nongroup members. However, the result revealed a heterogeneous effect among group members, with the benefits varying according to members’ socio-economic characteristics as well as internal group dynamics. The government and private donors should continue to promote the formation and organisation of farmers into groups. The role of group membership in farming outcomes can be enhanced if smaller groups are promoted. It is also crucial that strategies for promoting trust, reciprocity and group commitment be implemented for better group outcomes

The Effect of Participation in Farmer Groups on Household Adoption of Sustainable Land Management Practices in Kenyan Drylands

Land degradation is a major cause of declining yields and loss of dryland ecosystems resilience in the Lake Baringo Basin in Kenya. One of the solutions to land degradation in drylands is the application of Sustainable Land Management (SLM) technologies. Improving farmers’ capacity to adopt SLM technologies has been an important strategy of the Kenyan government and her development partners to addressing land degradation. State agricultural extension services are charged with the role of building this capacity. Unfortunately, such extension services have had little impact in the Kenyan drylands. To counter this inadequacy in extension services, farmers have formed grass-root organisations to foster networks of support and information sharing. In this paper, we analysed the effect of participation in farmers organisation in promoting adoption of SLM practices by agropastoralists in the Lake Baringo Basin. Data were collected through in-depth household interviews with 150 farmers, 79 of them group members and 71 non-group members. Level of knowledge, sources of information and challenges of SLM adoption were studied. The study revealed significant and positive association between group participation and adoption of SLM practices at X2 (3, N=150=63.209, P=0.000). Additionally, group partnering with development agencies like Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and government departments was reported to have significant influence on household adoption of SLM practices at X2 (3, N=79=13.147, P=0.004). The results indicated that farmer groups can effectively be used to leverage farmers' adoption of SLM innovations and potentially improve household income and food security in the Kenyan drylands. We recommended organizational and resource capacity building for farmer groups to promote their effectiveness in provision of resources and services to their members. In addition, government research and extension agencies and academia should consider forming collaborations with farmer groups in generation of SLM technologies that are suited to the farmers location and prevailing context.

Influence of Collective Action Participation on Technical Efficiency among Smallholder Producers: A Case of Banana Farmers in Kisii and Nyamira, Kenya

The main aim of the paper is to analyse the influence of collective action participation defined as group participation on technical efficiency among smallholder banana producers in Kisii and Nyamira Counties, Kenya. Using stochastic frontier approach, the study evaluated how farmers in collective action differ from non-collective action participants in terms of technical efficiency levels of banana production as well as the factors responsible for inefficiencies among farmers. Logistic regression model is also used to determine the characteristics of group participation among the smallholder producers. The findings were based on cross-sectional data with a sample size of 260 smallholder banana producing households obtained through a multi-stage sampling technique. From the results obtained from logistic regression, salaried occupation had a significant adverse effect on group participation, while age, gender, education level, informal occupation, mobile phone ownership and access to extension advice had a significant positive impact. Besides, the stochastic production frontier model estimates showed that group members were more technically efficient than non-members at the 1% significance level. Field size, use of manure and inorganic fertilizer had a significant positive effect on productivity levels with high returns to scale exhibited among non-group members. Inefficiency levels were significantly affected by the age, gender and occupation of the household head. In conclusion, collective action helps farmers to address various production needs, thus making them more technically efficient.

Feasibility and acceptability of the resilience songwriting program for adolescent bereavement

The Resilience Songwriting Program (RSP) for adolescent bereavement aims to offer a space for adolescents to nurture strengths and inner resources while also processing grief alongside peers. This study explored the feasibility and acceptability of the RSP with five males and five females (ages 11–17 years) who self-identified as grieving. Implemented as eight, 90-minute sessions at two community-based settings and as eight, 60-minute sessions at a middle school, feasibility data included tracking referrals, enrollment, attendance per site, reasons for missed sessions, and reasons for withdrawal. Input from three music therapists on barriers to and facilitators of successful RSP implementation was also collected. Acceptability data were obtained through individual post-program qualitative interviews and journaling completed during RSP sessions. The adolescents found the RSP acceptable, relevant, and meaningful. Recruitment was most feasible in the school setting, yet the music therapist found it challenging to complete the RSP protocol within the 60-minute session time frame. Music therapists in the community-based settings found the RSP protocol feasible to implement in the 90-minute session time frame. Future studies on the RSP should consider group composition, participants’ readiness to share song recordings with non-group members, and the clinical appropriateness of taking home song recordings.

Acorn woodpeckers vocally discriminate current and former group members from nongroup members

Abstract In species with long-term social relationships, the ability to recognize individuals after extended separation and the ability to discriminate between former social affiliates that have died and those that have left the group but may return are likely to be beneficial. Few studies, however, have investigated whether animals can make these discriminations. We presented acorn woodpeckers (Melanerpes formicivorus), a group-living, cooperatively breeding bird, with playbacks of current group members, former group members still living nearby, former group members that had died or left the study area, and familiar nongroup members. Subjects responded more quickly to the calls of nongroup members than to the calls of current group members or former group members still living in the study area but did not discriminate between nongroup members and former group members that had died or disappeared. This suggests that acorn woodpeckers can vocally recognize both current group members and former group members that have dispersed to nearby groups and that they either forget former group members that no longer live in the vicinity or classify them differently from former group members that still live nearby. This study suggests an important role for vocal recognition in maintaining valuable relationships with social affiliates postdispersal.

Beyond solidarity and mutual aid: Tension and conflict in burial groups in rural Uganda

Drawing from ethnographic data collected between 2012 and 2014 and January and June 2018 in Luwero district, Uganda, this article questions the romanticised depiction of burial groups as a means of enhancing social support, a sense of solidarity and mutual aid. We found that the felt sense of identity and belonging for members is not shared across community members, and that solidary relations between members and non-group members in the community are fraught with tensions and conflicts. Beyond the romanticised view of burial groups, we need to study burial groups as a model of solidarity in disunity and diversity.

Psychological Essentialism in Serek ha-Yaḥad and the Two Spirits Treatise

Abstract This paper investigates the psychological mechanisms that underpin Qumran sectarian dualism and its construction of in-group/out-group boundaries. Specifically, evidence from experimental and developmental psychology and cognitive anthropology is used to argue that Serek ha-Yaḥad and the Two Spirits Treatise (1QS 3:13–4:26) reflect a deeply-engrained psychological essentialism wherein non-group members are conceptualized as having inherently different biological essences. This essentialist tendency is easily extended to the social domain in what scholars call the “naturalization” of social groups. After reviewing this literature, the paper examines the Serek and Treatise’s use of kinship terms, the word “spirit,” and language denoting human nature and living species, in order to demonstrate that essentialist intuitions about outsiders provide a foundation for the sect’s dualistic worldview. Importantly, the essentialist thinking in these texts is also firmly grounded in and channeled through the intertextual interpretation of scripture, drawing heavily on the rich creation vocabulary in Genesis 1–3.

Cultural multi-level selection and biological market theory explain the coupled dynamics of labor exchange cooperation and social support

Smallholders rely on labor exchange and social support networks; however, little is known about the cooperative dynamics of these interlinked systems. Whereas cultural multi-level selection (CLMS) predicts group membership and changes in the dominant level of selection modulates cooperation, biological market theory (BMT) posits market size fluctuations affect cooperation. We assess these predictions by examining two dimensions of labor exchange, competitive helping and labor reciprocity, and their downstream impacts on social support in a Dominican community between 2007 and 2010. First, we analyze within-community labor organization. Next, we analyze how international regulatory change and the 2008–2009 World Trade Collapse affected local labor organization and its impacts on competitive helping and labor reciprocity. Finally, we show how labor dynamics affected social support. Analyses reveal that (1) village labor initially involved two levels (labor contracting and labor exchange) and the presence of a structured group who maintained higher rates of reciprocal labor relative to non-group members; (2) changes in the international commodities market reduced labor contracting, the size of the labor exchange market, and the dominant level of selection, resulting in less competitive helping, lower rates of reciprocity for group members, and more cliquish social support; and (3) as the global market for bay oil ameliorated, labor organization shifted back to a pre-recession structure, resulting in a larger labor market with more competitive helping and higher rates of reciprocity amongst group members. We highlight the utility of an integrated CMLS and BMT framework for analyzing cooperative dynamics and socio-economic systems sustainability.

The early evolution of cooperation in humans. On cheating, group identity and group size

The evolution of cooperation is difficult to understand, because cheaters — individuals who profit without cooperating themselves — have a benefit in interaction with cooperators. Cooperation among humans is even more difficult to understand, because cooperation occurs in large groups, making cheating a bigger threat. Restricting cooperation to members of one’s own group based on some tag-based recognition of non-group members (allorecognition) has been shown to stabilise cooperation. We address how spatial structure and group size affect the opportunities for cheating such tag-based cooperation in a spatially explicit simulation. We show that increased group diversity, under conditions of limited dispersal, reduces the selective opportunities for cheaters. A small number can already be sufficient to keep cheating at a low frequency. We discuss how marginal additional benefits of increased group size, above the benefits of local cooperation, can provide the selective pressure to reduce the number of group identities and discuss possible examples.

Economic games and social neuroscience methods can help elucidate the psychology of parochial altruism.

The success of Homo sapiens can in large part be attributed to their highly social nature, and particularly their ability to live and work together in extended social groups. Throughout history, humans have undergone sacrifices to both advance and defend the interests of fellow group members against non-group members. Intrigued by this, researchers from multiple disciplines have attempted to explain the psychological origins and processes of parochial altruism: the well-documented tendency for increased cooperation and prosocial behavior within the boundaries of a group (akin to ingroup love, and ingroup favoritism), and second, the propensity to reject, derogate, and even harm outgroup members (akin to “outgroup hate,” e.g., Tajfel and Turner, 1979; Brewer, 1999; Hewstone et al., 2002; Choi and Bowles, 2007; De Dreu et al., 2014; Rusch, 2014). Befitting its centrality to a wide range of human social endeavors, parochial altruism is manifested in a large variety of contexts that may differ psychologically. Sometimes, group members help others to achieve a positive outcome (e.g., gain money); and sometimes group members help others avoid a negative outcome (e.g., avoid being robbed). Sometimes, group members conflict over a new resource (e.g., status; money; land) that is currently “unclaimed”; and sometimes they conflict over a resource that is already held by one group. In this paper, we take stock of exciting new directions and methods in the psychological study of parochial altruism. We argue that to enrich our understanding of the psychological processes underlying parochial altruism, researchers could (continue to) incorporate methods and insights developed and popularized in adjacent disciplines, such as behavioral economics and social neuroscience. First, we highlight how the discipline of behavioral economics and its associated methodology of economic games can enrich our psychological understanding of parochial altruism through exploring the manifestation of, and psychological mechanisms driving, parochial altruism in both gains and losses contexts. Second, we consider the social neuroscientific approach, highlighting how research into neuromodulators has advanced our understanding of parochial altruism by outlining differential influences of the neuromodulators testosterone and oxytocin on ingroup cooperation and outgroup discrimination. Given that parochial altruism is at root an interdisciplinary phenomenon, it would be a pity if each discipline that studies it does so from and within its own silo. With greater incorporation of these new directions in parochial altruism, scientists can enrich their understanding as to when, why, and how people help members of their own group more than other groups, and even harm members of other groups.