Non-farm Income Research Articles

Part-Time Farming, Agricultural Socialized Services, and Organic Fertilizer Use: Implications for Climate Change Mitigation

The adoption of organic fertilizers is essential for advancing China’s green agricultural transformation, ensuring food security, and supporting agricultural adaptations. However, several challenges hinder its widespread use in rural areas. This study examines how part-time farming and agricultural service provision influences organic fertilizer use, employing fixed and random effects models on data from 523 households in Shaanxi Province, one of China’s main apple-producing regions. The results reveal: (1) Part-time farming reduces organic fertilizer use by 7.6%, primarily due to labor shortages; (2) Higher non-farm income exacerbates this decline, particularly for Type II part-time farmers; and (3) Mechanized fertilization services help mitigate this reduction. These findings offer valuable policy insights for promoting organic fertilizer adoption in the context of shifting rural labor dynamics and highlight the complex interactions between farming practices and labor migration in the broader trajectory of organic fertilizer use. Moreover, this study highlights the role of organic fertilizer use in enhancing food security while also helping to reduce the carbon footprint of the crop sector in China.

Competitive or crowding‐out? Estimating spillover effects from large‐scale farms on smallholders in China

AbstractDrawing on data from the Chinese Family Database for 2015, 2017, and 2019, this study employed the difference‐in‐differences method to examine the spillover effects of large‐scale farms (LSFs) on smallholders. The findings confirmed that LSFs positively affect smallholder household income and nonfarm income. The mechanisms verified that LSFs increase the nonfarm income of smallholders, primarily through the transfer out of their land. Additionally, we found that vulnerable groups—such as households with a lower proportion of the labor force, a lower proportion of members in good health, and lower total education years of the labor force—are more likely to be crowded out. Additionally, the study confirmed that LSFs steal the market from smallholders, precipitating a slightly negative competitive effect. These findings have important policy implications for developing countries implementing the LSF policy and for countries where smallholders suffer from livelihood issues.

Intersectionality shapes the access to various adaptive resources in climate-vulnerable contexts

Abstract Intersectional approaches are becoming essential to understanding the differential impacts of climate change and the heterogeneity of adaptive capacities. Varying factors of social and economic privileges and inequalities synergistically shape the local power structure, ultimately determining disproportionality and unequal access to adaptive resources. Using empirical data from coastal Bangladesh, which is part of the Ganges Delta, and one of the world’s -most climate-vulnerable regions, this study shows how religion, gender, and ethnicity intersect with patterns in (i) farm and non-farm incomes, (ii) land conflicts, (iii) the size of farms, and (iv) access to critical sources of weather information. The study highlights that multilayered identity, which is shaped by various structural determinants, including local power structure, can determine gendered dimensions of access to various adaptation resources. It also shows that if policymakers and development partners partially understand or do not understand the complex landscape of local vulnerability or unequal power structures including the adaptive capacity of the vulnerable populations, they would not be able to provide critical support in times of crisis. The concept of intersectionality is therefore critical in addressing adaptation and risk management challenges for regions like the Ganges Delta and other parts of the world, where people are struggling with similar social and environmental challenges.

Determinan Keputusan Petani Mengelola Usahatani Padi Di Lahan Suboptimal

The conversion of paddy fields seriously impacts rice availability for national food reserves, so the government is implementing a sub-optimal land extension program. Indonesia has suboptimal land that has the potential to become a national rice barn if appropriately managed. The types of suboptimal land most widely used in rice cultivation are lowland and tidal swamps, where the community can work. This research analyzes the determinants of rice farmers' decisions in managing suboptimal land. This research was conducted in West Tanjung Jabung Regency, Jambi Province, with a sample of 90 rice farmers. Data were analyzed using the multinomial logistic regression method. The determining factors are seen from the demographic and economic aspects. The research results show that factors that significantly influence farmers' decisions to choose tidal land from the demographic aspect are age and farming experience; from the economic element are the number of family dependents, land ownership status, and non-farming income. The significant determining factors in farmers' decisions to manage lowland swamp land from the demographic aspect are age and farming experience, and from the economic element are the number of family dependents and non-farming income. From the research, recommendations that can maximize the use of suboptimal land are increasing promotion and education to the community about rice cultivation on suboptimal land, providing easy access for farmers to rent land, and it is hoped that farmers will continue to have non-farming income to balance household needs and procurement of capital and farming input.

A Study on the Socio-economic Factors Influencing Women’s Involvement in SHG Programmes in Ambedkar Nagar District of Uttar Pradesh, India

In the present paper, an attempt has been made to understand the socio-economic conditions of the SHG members and factors determining women’s participation in the SHG programme, utilizing pre-structured and pre-tested schedules to collect information from Ambekar Nagar district. Employed proportionate random sampling as well as purposive technique, 120 respondents were selected from two blocks i.e., Akbarpur and Bhiti based on higher number of SHGs. The data were analyzed with the help of suitable statistical tools like percentage, mean and binary probit models, to find the factors that effect the women’s participation in SHG programme. Results revealed that 40% of the respondents were illiterate, with the remainder having varying levels of education, predominantly at the primary level. Family size was primarily medium (5-6 members), and landholdings averaged 1.4 hectares, reflecting a predominantly agricultural setting. Livestock ownership, particularly buffaloes and goats, contributed significantly to household livelihoods. The study employed a probit regression model to analyze the determinants of women’s participation in SHGs, with factors such as age, family size, landholding, education, and net non-farm income examined. The results indicated that age and net non-farm income were statistically significant in influencing participation, with older women and those with higher non-farm income being less likely to engage in SHGs. Conversely, larger family size positively impacted participation. The findings suggest that rural development initiatives should prioritize younger women, expand education opportunities, and promote farm-based income generation to enhance SHG participation and, consequently, women's empowerment.

Effect of Non-Farm Income on Income Inequality in Pakistan

The portion of farm households' income outside the farm, such as non-farm salaries and wages, pensions, and interest income, is referred to as non-farm income. In Pakistan, non-farm profit is an essential source of income. "income inequality" describes the inequitable income distribution between people or families in a community or economy. Income inequality is a significant issue worldwide, including in Pakistan. This research estimated the effect of non-farm income on rural and urban areas and analyzed the relationship between non-farm income and income inequality within households. Secondary data from the Pakistan Social and Living Standard Measurement Survey Household data (2019-20) was used. Multinomial Logistic Regression was applied to the data, and income inequality was calculated using the Gini coefficient. The population was divided into quartiles to measure income distribution. The research found that non-farm income raises income inequality, while farm income is an income equalizer among the population. The reason behind this is that a major portion of income or wealth is accessed by the upper society, with only a minor portion reaching the lower levels of the population. Specifically, the Gini coefficient for non-farm income was 0.65, indicating higher inequality, compared to 0.45 for farm income. In urban areas, non-farm income provides large opportunities, while rural areas predominantly depend on the farm sector. There is a need to raise awareness about the non-farm sector in rural sector. The study's policy implications include the following: In order to improve agricultural households' income and low-income disparity, non-farm income activities have to be promoted. The study also suggests that Inequalities within rural communities should be addressed as part of an equal development strategy, in addition to the rural-urban gap.

A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF POTATO GROWERS IN KANGRA DISTRICT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

This study investigates the socio-economic status of potato farmers in the Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh. This district was chosen specifically because it has a substantial area under potato cultivation. The required information was gathered from two potato-growing blocks in the district. The study revealed that the majority of household heads (57%) are between the ages of 16 and 40, with an average family size of five to seven people. Agriculture and livestock rearing emerge as the primary sources of income for most farms, with an average farm size of 1.76 ha, 74% of which are irrigated. During the Kharif season, vegetable crops are dominant, while potatoes are important during the Rabi season, with an average of 21.23 ha per farm. Potato productivity varies, with large farms producing 253.75 q/ha versus 246.43 q/ha on small farms. Agriculture-related earnings, or farm earnings, account for 45.2% of total farm income, with potatoes accounting for 8%, while non-farm income accounts for ~26.5%. Future research topics include investigating the impact of climate change on potato farming and evaluating the effectiveness of agricultural policies in terms of income and productivity. Further research could look into the effects of modern farming techniques on sustainability and profitability, potentially providing insights into improving agricultural practices in the region.

Education, Risk-attitude and Agricultural Innovation: Farm Level Investigation in North India

This paper explores the role of farmers’ education in promoting farming innovation, that is, contract farming (CF). Applying the Tobit model on cross-sectional data of 754 wheat growers in Haryana, it has been found that education directly and indirectly (by reducing risk aversion) stimulates the participation intensity of farmers in CF. It directly enhances farmers’ capacity to absorb and comprehend CF complexities and indirectly reduces farmers’ risk-aversion attitude. It fosters a positive attitude and willingness to adopt modern technologies. Hence, both the education and risk-taking attitudes of farmers are found to be significant for CF adoption probability and intensity. Other factors like farm size, non-farm income, asset ownership and access to credit, media and contact with extension services are all positive stimuli of CF participation intensity. The study suggests promoting field school and awareness programmes to help farmers both acquire and disseminate information on modern farm practices and technologies. JEL Codes: C01, I25, Q16

Socio-Economic Perspective of Milk Producers of District Ghazipur of Uttar Pradesh, India

Socio-economic analysis play crucial role in implementation of any policy. This study, conducted in the Gazipur District of Uttar Pradesh, focuses on the current state of milk production costs. The research employs a descriptive and analytical design, using a survey methodology to categorize cattle owners into small, medium, and large-scale operations based on the number of cattle owned. A total of 10 villages were randomly selected from two blocks, with 150 milk producers chosen for in-depth study from each size category (small, medium, and large). The survey collected data on various demographics, including age, gender, education level, and social categories, as well as detailed information on milk marketing and socioeconomics. Results indicate that out of the 150 respondents, 76 were small-scale farmers, 43 were medium-scale, and 31 were large-scale. The majority of respondents (78%) were male. Economic analysis revealed that small households had an average annual income of Rs. 198,879, medium households Rs. 158,044, and large households Rs. 274,970. Non-farm income was highest for large farms (Rs. 148,140), followed by medium (Rs. 123,024) and small farms. This comprehensive study provides valuable insights into the economic conditions and marketing practices of milk producers in Gazipur, highlighting key areas for potential improvement and policy intervention.

Does local non-farm income moderate the intensity of climate change induced migration in India?

While the impact of climate change on migration is well documented in the literature, very little is known about the moderating impact of local non-farm income on climate change induced migration. To fill this gap in the literature, the paper combines real time weather data provided by Indian Meteorological Department with a very rich household data on Indian states belonging to the eastern and semi-arid tropic regions collected by ICRISAT to investigate whether farmers always resort to migration or take it up as a second-best option only after they fail to diversify locally on the face of climate change induced crop loss. Using recursive econometric model, it is observed that households first try to diversify their income by engaging in local non-farm activities and availability of local non-farm income further moderates the effect of climate change induced yield loss on migration. Higher rural out migration may adversely impact the agricultural sector and affect sustainable urbanization, Also, decision to migrate is often challenging as it necessitates leaving behind social and community networks. Therefore, our findings offer valuable insights and discusses important policy recommendations towards improving the access to local non-farm activities.

Is parity pricing enough? A critical analysis of parity pricing and the case for additional strategies

Producers in the U.S., particularly small-scale farmers and specialty crop growers, are unable to maintain their livelihoods with farming alone. This issue is convoluted by low farm gate prices stemming from the unequal distribution of market share and political support within the U.S. food supply chain. As a result, many farm activists and scholars have recommended a revitalization of parity pricing within U.S. policy. Parity pricing once served to set price floors considered to represent “fair” farm gate prices determined by the farm gate price and purchasing power of commodities during the parity period of 1910–1914. In this paper, we evaluate whether parity did exist during the set period of 1910–1914, showing farm incomes and non-farm incomes were not significantly different from one another during the parity period. We then explore the extent to which parity prices correspond to farm-gate prices, transfer terminal prices, and retail prices for a select group of twelve specialty crops. We show that farm gate prices are significantly lower than parity prices, do not necessarily translate into low prices for consumers, and do not consistently correlate with production costs. Lastly, we display the temporal correspondence between the end of parity pricing and declines in farm income. Our analysis contributes important evidence of the inequalities within production, payment, and pricing structures of specialty crops in the U.S. As such, we provide a critique of parity pricing arguing that parity pricing alone will not be sufficient to solve the complex and deeply rooted issues underpinning low farm gate prices and injustices within the U.S. food system. We conclude with a discussion of the impacts of low farm gate prices and areas for policy interventions.

RESOURCE USE EFFICIENCY IN IMPROVE HYBRID TOMATO PRODUCTION IN AKWA IBOM STATE, SOUTHERN REGION OF NIGERIA

The study estimates the technical efficiency of tomato farmers in Akwa Ibom State in the Southern Region of Nigeria. One hundred and twenty tomato farmers were randomly selected using multistage sampling technique. Descriptive statistics and maximum likelihood estimation of the stochastic Cobb- Douglas production function were used to analyze the collected data. The results of socioeconomic characteristics showed that male farmers dominated tomato cultivation in the region. The majority of farmers were relatively young, educated, and had moderate household size but low social capital accumulation. The empirical results identified seeds, manure, fertilizer, farm size, hired labour and family labour as significant inputs in tomato production. The study found decreasing return to scale in tomato production in the region. An average technical efficiency index of 0.797 was estimated, which corresponds to an efficiency gap of approximately 20.30%. Determinants of technical efficiency were: farming experience, socialization, education, training, farm income, household size and non-farm income. To increase the technical efficiency of tomato farmers, it is recommended that they should be encouraged to join existing cooperatives to obtain production information that would improve their technical efficiency; and providing formal education, especially in rural areas, would encourage tomato farmers to update their knowledge and acquire more skills necessary for efficient management of farm resources.

ANALYSIS OF GROUNDWATER USE EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS IN PAKISTAN: EVIDENCE FROM BALOCHISTAN PROVINCE

Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan in terms of area, and most of its population depends on agriculture. It has an arid/semi-arid climate with frequent drought and dry spells. Almost half of the cultivated area is irrigated, and the primary source of irrigation is groundwater. Indus water available in Balochistan remains underutilized. Drought and tube well subsidy and other factors have resulted in over-exploited groundwater and unsustainable groundwater table. This situation affects agriculture, hence the livelihood of the residents. The study focused on analyzing the impact of using groundwater for irrigation on agricultural productivity and farmer’s livelihood in the Balochistan province of Pakistan. For this purpose, five villages were randomly selected from the district Quetta, where groundwater was the only source for irrigation. In each village, 20 farmers were interviewed through well-structured and pre-tested questionnaires. For each significant crop cultivated in the area, ‘Water Productivity’ was measured as Yield ⁄ Volume of water required in cubic meter/acre, ‘Crop Profitability’ was analyzed using ‘Benefit-Cost Ratio’ and ‘Impact of Groundwater Use on Gross Value Product’s was estimated using double log model. Results revealed that the net revenue generated from cropping was Rs. 32168 per month, whereas the monthly household expenditure of the farmers was Rs.33960, on average. Cropping alone cannot sustain the households’ livelihoods. With net income from livestock and non-farm income, farmers can meet their monthly household expenditure. Results of BCR show that all the crops are profitable, but this profitability is at the expense of over-fetching scarce groundwater. Wheat is the only crop with more than 1.19 kg/meter water productivity. Crops’ water productivity may decline if the water table keeps reducing. GVP of wheat and maize is negatively affected by the cost of groundwater. Cost sensitivity can be decreased if cost-efficient methods of irrigation are available. The government should regularize groundwater use through proper legislation and provide infrastructure/incentives for using other sources of water for irrigation as well. Availability of good quality seed to farmers should be ensured to enhance crop yield.

The effects of social capital and family income on farmers’ participation in rural public goods provision

Farmers' participation in rural public goods provision (PGP) is vital to improving rural public goods conditions and achieving rural revitalization in China. The factors influencing farmers' participation are, however, far from clear. This paper aims to investigate how social capital and income, the two most prominent factors, affect rural residents' participation in PGP. We use the Heckman sample selection model to empirically estimate the effects of both social capital and family income on farmers' participation and contribution to PGP based on a household survey conducted in four representative provinces in China. We further investigate the moderating effect of village location and elite ability on the effect of social capital on farmers' participation. Our results show that social capital generally has a positive impact on farmers' participation. Specifically, improving the formal norm, size of networks, and density of network would increase farmers' participation propensity. Enriching norms, particularly formal norms, can significantly improve farmers' contribution to public goods. Surprisingly, family income, mainly non-farm income, has a slightly negative effect on farmers' participation. Moreover, village-county distance can undermine the effect of social norms on farmers' participation, while elite ability can enhance the effect of social trust on farmers' participation. Thus, we suggest authorities should focus on enhancing social capital in the rural community to promote farmers’ participation in PGP.

Model Pengeluaran Rumahtangga Peternak Ayam Broiler Di Kecamatan Tenayan Raya Kota Pekanbaru Provinsi Riau

Household expenditure is the amount of money used by households to meet household consumption. This study aims to analyze the characteristics of broiler farmers, the structure of household income and expenditure, and analyze the factors affecting broiler farmers household expenditure. This study uses a survey method. The sampling method used simple random sampling with a total sample of 56 broiler farmers. There are 4 findings in this study. First, the age of the broiler farmers is productive with a high school education level. They are experienced in their business. Second, the structure of broiler farmers household income consists of broiler business income and non-farm income. Broiler business income has a large contribution to household income. Third, household expenditure consists of food and non-food expenditure. Non-food expenditure has the largest share of household expenditure. Fourth, significant dominant factors affecting household expenditure are household income, number of family members, savings and household assets. However, farmer's education does not significantly affect household expenditure

Livelihood Diversity of Rural Communities Without Legal Access to Forest Resources: The Case of Kerinci Seblat National Park in Bengkulu Province

Kerinci Seblat National Park in Bengkulu, Indonesia, was gazetted by the Indonesian government, and its overlaps with forests occupied by most indigenous communities made their farming activities in the area illegal. People were prohibited from accessing and expanding their farming areas in the national park, threatening their livelihoods. The livelihood diversity index (LDI) and livelihood asset index (LAI) were used to explore the livelihood systems of these communities. This study also examines the effect of livelihood assets on livelihood diversity and analyzes livelihood strategy choices using Giddens’ structuration theory. A quantitative survey combined with in-depth interviews was conducted in two villages with different land types: wetlands (rice fields) and drylands (farmlands). This study found that the communities diversified their livelihoods into eight types of livelihood strategies. Almost all livelihood indicators were different, and the differences in livelihood asset indicators affected the LDI. As a process of structuration, communities have diversified their livelihoods into farm (e.g., annual and perennial crops), off-farm (e.g., farm wages), and non-farm (e.g., services and government transfer) activities. Rural households have modified their social and physical structures to secure their livelihoods by optimizing agricultural intensification technologies or by seeking non-agricultural income. Households decide whether to specialize or diversify their livelihoods based on factors such as the area of cultivated land, number of crops cultivated, distance of the farming location from the house, total household income, non-farm income, and reciprocal relationships.

Spatial patterns, determinants, future trends, and implications for the sustainable use of terraces abandonment in China

Terrace abandonment in hilly and mountainous regions, particularly in China, has become a significant concern. However, comprehensive assessments of abandonment patterns and underlying causes are still lacking. This paper elucidates the patterns, determinants, and impacts of terraces abandonment in China by using data from a survey of 580 villages across 346 counties and employing spatial analysis and the Heckman two-stage model. Terrace abandonment, which began in the 1990s, has progressively intensified, peaking in 2015. Currently, 51.55% of surveyed villages experience terrace abandonment, affecting 21.17% of households and 8.37% of the total terrace area, with a distinct prevalence in the South and scarcity in the North. Key factors contributing to terrace abandonment include low returns compared to other options, wildlife damage, high engagement in non-farm labor, and substantial non-farm income. In 2021, terrace abandonment led to the loss of 9.36 million tons of grain production capacity, enough to fulfill the yearly consumption requirements of 23.4 million people. Moreover, terrace abandonment undermines the cultural importance of terraced agriculture, reduces tourism potential, and hinders rural rejuvenation. The challenge of terrace abandonment is anticipated to worsen with the increase in non-farm economic activities and ecological restoration projects in hilly and mountainous regions. It is crucial for the government to implement measures to enhance terrace management. These measures include reducing operational costs for large contiguous plots, promoting the cultivation of cash crops to increase revenues from extensive scattered plots, and advocating for the reforestation of agricultural land to enhance the ecological value of remote terraces at higher altitudes. Addressing these issues can achieve sustainable terrace use and management, contributing to broader rural development and ecological goals.

Rural household livelihood strategy, household reliance on forest goods, and its effect on protected area: Evidence from communities living adjacent to Kafta-Sheraro national park, Tigray, northern Ethiopia

Issues concerning household livelihood strategies and households' reliance on forest goods around Ethiopia's protected areas have not been adequately addressed. Thus, the purpose of this study is to quantify and determine the influence of livelihood assets on the choice of livelihood strategy, as well as the contribution of forest goods to rural livelihood and its effect on park conservation. The data was collected in 2020 through a survey of 384 households. To discover livelihood strategies, cluster analysis was employed. According to the study's findings, the livelihood asset indicators that significantly affected the likelihood of the household being in one of the identified livelihood strategies were forest income, labor, education level, number of livestock in TLU, agricultural income, off-farm income, non-farm income, access to credit, membership in a cooperative, and ethnicity. The study also discovered that forest income accounted for 17 % of the total income of the sample households, which varies across livelihood strategies (10 %–24 %) and ethnic backgrounds (43 % for Kunama). Households in low-income livelihood strategies (small-business and mixed-activity operators) generate more total and relative forest income than households in high-income livelihood strategies (large-scale and small-scale). There was no safe livelihood strategy for conserving park resources, as households in the entire livelihood strategy were involved in unlawful exploitation of park resources, which resulted in the deterioration of the park's ecological resources over time. Policy on agricultural intensification and encouraging livelihood choices less dependent on natural resources through creating opportunities (credit access, skill and knowledge development, and technology) should be applied, and the use of natural resources should be regulated and evaluated regularly.

Determinants of Food Security Status of Agricultural Households: An Empirical Investigation from Kuttanad Wetland System in Kerala, India

Recent debates highlight that agriculture-based strategies can enhance food security. Thus, this article examined the incidence and determinants of food security of agricultural households in Kuttanad, a wetland region situated in the southern part of the state of Kerala in India. Towards this objective, we have collected food consumption data from households and converted them into an equivalent amount of calorie intake. Further, we define food security in terms of calorie adequacy using the minimum calorie norm of 1,800 kcal suggested by the Food and Agricultural Organization for India. Our empirical results reveal that 37% of the sample households are food insecure. The incidence of food insecurity is higher among poor sections like labour households, Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY), and Scheduled Castes families. Results of Probit regression show that below poverty line and AAY families are less likely to be food secure than above poverty line families. The purchase of cereals from the Public Distribution System is found to have a positive impact on the food security status of the households. Both farm income and non-farm income positively influence the probability of food security. The study concludes that there are impediments to realizing the linkages between agriculture and food security. JEL Classification: Q10, Q18, I32, C25

The impact of credit accessibility and information communication technology on the income of small-scale sugarcane farmers in Ndwedwe Local Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa.

Access to credit and information and communication technology (ICT) plays a pivotal role in enhancing the practices of small-scale sugarcane farmers, impacting their financial, social, and economic wellbeing. However, many small-scale farmers need help accessing these resources, thereby affecting their ability to generate sustainable income. This study aimed to assess the factors influencing the adoption of ICT and access to credit and their subsequent impact on small-scale farmers' income. Employing a multistage sampling technique, 300 small-scale farmers were selected as participants in the study. The recursive bivariate probit regression model was used to assess the factors affecting adoption ICT and a selectivity-corrected ordinary least square regression model was utilized to estimate the synergistic effect of ICT adoption and access to credit on the income of small-scale sugarcane farmers. The findings revealed that approximately 77% of small-scale farmers had access to credit, while more than 80% had adopted ICT. The results derived from the recursive bivariate probit (RBP) regression model indicated that access to credit, education, and extension support positively and significantly influenced the adoption of ICT. Conversely, marital status and non-farm income exhibited a negative and significant influence on the adoption of ICT. Gender and marital status were positively and significantly associated with access to credit, whereas age, education, and non-farm income showed a negative and significant relationship on access to credit. Subsequently, a selectivity-corrected ordinary least square regression model analysis revealed that factors such as gender, marital status, extension, government support, and transportation costs positively and significantly influenced farmer's income. In contrast, education, employment status, and non-farm income exhibited a negative and significant influence on income. The study concludes that socio-demographic factors, such as gender, marital status, extension support, government support, and transportation costs, positively contribute to farmers' income. Small-scale sugarcane farmer involvement in other non-farm activities is associated with reduced farm income. This implies that farmers' livelihoods options are reduced as they can only focus on sugarcane development as a source of income. There is a pressing need to educate small-scale farmers on ICT and provide them with access to agricultural credit. Additionally, extension workers should offer advisory support to small-scale farmers requiring assistance in accessing agricultural credit. There is a need to train sugarcane farmers on different agricultural income generating activities to reduce their over-reliance on sugarcane development. By addressing the identified socio-demographic factors and implementing targeted policy interventions, stakeholders can foster an enabling environment for small-scale farmers to thrive, ultimately contributing to the sustainable development of the sugarcane sector and the broader agricultural landscape in South Africa.