Non-enzymatic Browning Reactions Research Articles

Role of hplc in estimation of acrylamide and microbiological approaches for depletion of acrylamide in food stuffs.

Acrylamide is known to be a mutagenic, nephrotoxic, and carcinogenic compound. Acrylamide is a snug processed food via, the nonenzymatic browning reaction and through the reaction connecting Asparginine and a carbonyl compound. The utilize of bacterial L-asparginase (LA) is one of the approaches for acrylamide depletion in food stuffs. Presently, the cancer risk in the overall population has not yet had anadequate response. But the acrylamide cancer tests are one of the basis tests of in vivo doses of Glycidamide (GA) in rats and exhibit in the cancer tests. In the actual stage, acrylamide concentration is fabricatedin edibles have set off a very significant wellbeingissue. The cut back of acrylamide in fried potatoes was determined by HPLC (High performance liquid chromatography).

Kinetics of Nonenzymatic Browning Reactions in Pumpkin Puree During Storage

Pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata) are a great source of essential nutrients counting vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and dietary fiber. Due to their healthy composition, it draws consumer attention. Pumpkin puree is used for preparation of baby foods, soups, flour, jam, jellies, and desserts. To assess the main quality parameters of the foods such as color and hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) formation, CIE-L*a*b* color changes and HMF formation which is also an indicator of Maillard browning reactions were evaluated storing the pumpkin puree at 27°, 37° and 47°C for 17 weeks. Kinetic parameters for HMF formation and color changes were calculated. The findings showed that HMF quantity linearly increased with the temperature and storage duration following the reaction model of zero order. The values of b* coordinate, Lightness, Chroma, and hue lessened linearly as a* coordinate values increased linearly fitting zero order reaction kinetic. By means of Arrhenius equation, the temperature dependency of the rate constant of color variation was demonstrated and the values of the activation energy (kj mol-1) were calculated as 76.15, 30.60, 46.08, 28.44, 27.61 and 38.32 for HMF formation, Lightness, a* coordinate, b* coordinate, Chroma, and hue, respectively.

Maillard reaction: formation, advantage, disadvantage and control. A review

The Maillard reaction (MR) is often known as the amino-carbonyl reaction, nonenzymatic browning, or protein glycation reaction. The non-enzymatic browning reaction is influenced by several factors like period, quantity of H2O, temperature, involved reactants, pH, and metal ions in food. During the production, processing, and storage of food, the MR is a crucial chemical process. While Maillard reaction products (MRPs) can enhance food quality during processing, some unfavorable reactions can also result in undesirable food effects. There are two sides to MRPs. The positive side is that these products have several advantages such as improvement in color, odor, flavor, and antioxidant ability. On the other hand, the negative side represents decreasing food quality and the nutritional value of some foods, as well as some health-related problems. The review involves several strategies by which MR could be controlled or prevented. These strategies were divided into two parts, the first is non-enzymatic which is done by adding functional ingredients that work to modify reducing sugars and amino groups and/or trapping of α-dicarbonyl compounds. The second is enzymatic, by using enzymes for example, fructosamine kinase, fructosamine oxidase, and lactose oxidase.

Nonenzymatic Browning and Antioxidant Properties of Thermally Treated Cereal Grains and End Products

Thermal treatment can be applied to cereal grains as a pretreatment or processing step in the form of either hydrothermal or dry thermal treatment. These heat treatments result in the occurrence of nonenzymatic browning reactions by means of the Maillard reaction and caramelisation. Nonenzymatic browning is influenced by the type and concentration of sugars and proteins, and the presence of bran. Aside from increasing nonenzymatic browning, thermal treatment increases the antioxidant capacity of cereals and baked goods through the release of bound phenolics. The degree of nonenzymatic browning and antioxidant content in cereal-based products depend on the thermal treatment intensity. Some studies found a decrease in total phenolic content after thermal treatment, due to loss of thermally labile compounds. High-intensity treatment has been shown to produce 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), furfural, and potentially carcinogenic acrylamide. Acrylamide formation can be mitigated by altering the ingredient composition and the degree of thermal treatment. This review discusses the chemistry of nonenzymatic browning reactions, factors influencing the degree of these reactions, and mitigation strategies for acrylamide. An overview of the effect of dry thermal treatment on nonenzymatic browning and antioxidants in wheat and wheat-based products as well as other cereals is provided. Before concluding with perspectives, a discussion of the relationship between nonenzymatic browning and antioxidant properties is presented. This review of the published literature was conducted using two electronic databases and varying combinations of search terms related to the scope of the review.

Non-enzymatic browning reaction of isomaltulose

Isomaltulose is a naturally occurring reducing disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose monomers. It is gaining interest as an alternative sweetener to sucrose in past years. It has been successfully used in various food products like chocolate, breakfast cereals, chewing gums, and dairy products especially, ice cream and yogurt. Nonenzymatic browning reactions in foods continue to be an active area of research because of their important roles in color, flavor and nutritional quality. The present study aimed to investigate the influence of different environmental factors on the non-enzymatic browning reaction of isomaltulose. The formation of colored products as a result of the non-enzymatic browning reaction was monitored. The most significant color change occurs in isomaltulose solution under the studied conditions (pH, temperature and amino component), which is a clear indication of a more intense course of the non-enzymatic browning reaction. The most intense staining was observed at pH 10, t = 80°C with the amino component glycine. It has been found that while glucose solutions are coloured more intensely in the presence of lysine, isomaltulose solutions are coloured more intensely in the presence of glycine. In addition to the type of amino component, the degree of staining is influenced by the pH value and the temperature. The results obtained showed that the use of isomaltulose in the composition of foods, that are subject to heat treatment, will affect the color formation of the final product.

Contribution of Hydroxycinnamic Acids to Color Formation in Nonenzymatic Browning Reactions with Key Maillard Reaction Intermediates.

The Maillard reaction is a vital part of food processing, involving a vast number of complex reaction pathways, resulting in high-molecular-weight colorants. So far, studies have been focused on the conversion of carbohydrates and amino compounds, but the literature elaborating the contribution of phenolic compounds to the formation of the colored end-products is still rare. The aim of this study was to characterize early reactions, underlying the formation of phenol-containing melanoidins. For this purpose, binary model systems of the prominent phenolic compounds caffeic acid and ferulic acid combined with α-dicarbonyl compounds typically formed in the Maillard reaction such as glyoxal, methylglyoxal, and diacetyl were analyzed after heat treatment. High-resolution mass spectrometry revealed that decarboxylation, aromatic electrophilic substitution, and nucleophilic addition are important reaction steps that lead to colored heterogeneous oligomers. Polymerization was favored for phenolic compounds with a high electron density in the aromatic system and for α-dicarbonyl compounds carrying aldehyde functions.

Characteristics of Indonesian traditional fermented seafood paste (terasi) made from shrimp and anchovy

Fermented seafood paste, terasi, is a ubiquitous ingredient in Indonesian traditional cuisine. It is commonly used as a flavor enhancer due to its unique, strong, and complex flavor. Traditionally, terasi is made using planktonic shrimp (Acetes indicus) but some regional varieties of terasi include other seafoods, such as fish in their recipes. The present study aimed to explore the cultural and ethnic significance of terasi, investigating the current traditional preparation of terasi, and analyze the characteristics of terasi made from shrimp and fish. The traditional practice of terasi making in Cirebon, its birthplace, often includes the use of anchovy (Engraulidae) as an additional ingredient besides shrimp, as observed among more than 70% of local producers. Therefore, we characterized several aspects of terasi made from shrimp and anchovy (fish) under different proportions. Higher proportion of fish in terasi was associated with darker color due to browning reactions and higher microbial load, particularly proteolytic and lactic acid bacteria. Nutritionally, higher proportion of fish increased the protein content of terasi but decreased its fat content. A series of chemical analyses revealed that the addition of fish in terasi significantly increased protein hydrolysis, lipid peroxidation, and non-enzymatic browning (Maillard) reaction, thus resulting in a significant formation of toxic compounds such as histamine and acrylamide. Interestingly, organoleptic analysis showed that terasi made from an equal proportion of shrimp and fish was preferred by the panelists. Therefore, this study suggested that mixing shrimp and fish could be used as a strategy to increase consumer’s acceptance toward terasi. However, for food safety reasons, some adjustments in the fermentation period should be made in future studies since the addition of fish in terasi would increase microbial activity and accelerate chemical reactions.

Development of Yellow Discoloration in Sawai (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) Muscle due to Lipid Oxidation.

In this study, we investigated the impact of lipid oxidation on the discoloration of Sawai (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) lipids and proteins. Sawai microsomes, liposomes, and salt-soluble myofibrillar proteins were prepared and subjected to lipid oxidation process. The results revealed that the levels of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, yellowness (as indicated by b* values), and pyrrole compounds increased when Sawai liposomes and microsomes were oxidized using iron and ascorbate. Meanwhile, the levels of free amines decreased, particularly as the iron content (25∼100 μM) and incubation time (0∼20 h) increased. The impact of oxidized liposomes at different levels (1, 2, and 5%) on the salt-soluble Sawai myofibrillar proteins was also evaluated. The findings revealed that lipid oxidation products reduced the sulfhydryl content and increased the surface hydrophobicity and carbonyl content of the salt-soluble Sawai myofibrillar proteins. These results imply that the formation of yellow discoloration in Sawai muscle could be due to nonenzymatic browning reactions occurring between lipid oxidation products and amines in the muscle protein.

The non-enzymatic browning of pine bark during thermal treatment: Color and chemical changes, color kinetics and insights into mechanisms

Thermal treatment is an essential modification method for agroforestry biomass, and it causes the most intuitive change in agroforestry biomass, a color change. But there is still a lack of color change mechanism due to the complexity of the thermal behavior. In this work, Masson pine bark was thermally treated at 80–200 °C for 3–9 h. The monosaccharide compositions of untreated pine bark and the content of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, total phenolic, and total sugar during thermal treatment were determined to investigate the substrates and pathways triggering non-enzymatic browning reactions. UPLC-HESI-MS/MS, TG, SEM, FTIR, XRD, and color analysis were performed to track the association between chemical changes, color changes and pyrolysis properties. The results showed that the colorimetric parameters L*, a*, and b* values decreased with temperature and time, while ΔE* values increased. The color changes in L*, a*, and b* values were well described by the combined color kinetic model, with corresponding zero-order activation energies of 8.06 kJ/mol, 2.79 kJ/mol, and 3.5 kJ/mol and first-order activation energies of 11.45 kJ/mol, 18.55 kJ/mol, and 18.66 kJ/mol, respectively. And the predictive ability of the combined color kinetic model and the reliability of kinetic parameters was verified at an extended temperature of 220 °C. Furthermore, chemical changes confirmed that the formation of colored compounds (such as 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, furfural, and (+)-Procyanidin B2) by the non-enzymatic browning reactions and the degradation of the colored polymers existed in thermal treatment. Together, insights into the non-enzymatic browning reaction mechanisms and color kinetics provided a scientific basis for controlling color quality and valorized application of agroforestry wastes.

Effects of grind size, temperature, and brewing ratio on immersion cold brewed and French press hot brewed coffees

This study investigated the effects of coffee ground particle size (282–1057 µm volume-weighted mean particle diameter), extraction temperature (4–37 °C), steeping time (5 min to 18 h), and brew ratio (1:3–1:11 ground:water, w/w) on the physicochemical properties of coffee brews prepared using an immersion cold brewing method. The results showed that the extraction rate and yield increased with increasing brewing temperature and decreasing grind size. Brew ratio significantly affected the extraction yield and titratable acidity of the brews, but not the extraction rate. The ratio between the absorbance at 420 nm and total dissolved solid increased with increasing brewing time, suggesting that non-enzymatic browning reactions might have occurred during the extraction process. Strong positive correlations of total dissolved solids with brew physicochemical properties (total phenol content, caffein content, titratable acidity, absorbance at 420 nm) were observed. Compared with hot brew, the cold brew coffees had significantly higher pH (5.18 vs 5.38) and surface tension (61.6 vs 64.5 mN/s) values, but lower titratable acidity (0.97 vs 0.86 g/L), total polyphenol content (4.08 vs 3.40 g/L), and viscosity (1.12 vs 1.08 cSt) values. The findings from this study are expected to be useful for baristas to control extraction efficiency/yield and manipulate brew compositional profiles to impart unique sensory characteristics of cold brew coffee beverages.

Fabrication of glycated yeast cell protein via Maillard reaction for delivery of curcumin: improved environmental stability, antioxidant activity, and bioaccessibility.

The application of curcumin (CUR) in the food industry is limited by its instability, hydrophobicity and low bioavailability. Yeast cell protein (YCP) is a by-product of spent brewer's yeast, which has the potential to deliver bioactive substances. However, the environmental stresses such as pH, salt and heat treatment has restricted its application in the food industry. Maillard reaction as a non-enzymatic browning reaction can improve protein stability under environmental stress. The CUR was successfully encapsulated into the hydrophobic core of YCP/glycated YCP (GYCP) and enhanced by hydrogen bonding, resulting in static fluorescence quenching of YCP/GYCP. The average diameter and dispersibility of GYPC-CUR nanocomplex were significantly improved after glucose glycation (121.40 nm versus 139.70 nm). Moreover, the encapsulation capacity of CUR was not influenced by glucose glycation. The oxidative stability and bioaccessibility of CUR in nanocomplexes were increased compared with free CUR, especially complexed with GYCP conjugates. Steric hindrance provided by glucose conjugation improved the enviriomental stability, oxidative activity and bioaccessibility of CUR in nanocomplexes. Thus, glucose-glycated YCP has potential application as a delivery carrier for hydrophobic compounds in functional foods. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The effects of different amounts of maltodextrin on the rheological behaviour and stability of white cheese emulsions, and the physical, microstructural, chemical and sensory properties of white cheese powders

To determine the technologically appropriate proportions of maltodextrin addition, white cheese emulsions with maltodextrin added to replace 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% of cheese dry matter were prepared and spray dried. Increased maltodextrin resulted in decreased apparent viscosity, whereas fat separation was observed in emulsions containing more than 30% maltodextrin addition. The free fat content decreased as the maltodextrin concentration increased, resulting in improved reconstitution properties. The addition of maltodextrin decreased total and free hydroxymethylfurfural content. The particles in powders containing maltodextrin had more uniform surfaces than the particles of the control powder (no maltodextrin added). The intensity of the cheese flavour slightly decreased as the maltodextrin concentration increased. The results revealed that the addition of maltodextrin improved physical properties and prevented nonenzymatic browning reactions. However, adding more than 30% may cause problems such as instability of cheese emulsions and a loss of cheese flavour intensity in cheese powders.

Hydrodynamic cavitation processing of ascorbic acid treated precooled sugarcane juice for physiochemical, bioactive, enzyme stability, and microbial safety

AbstractA hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) system (0.35 MPa) with a cooling arrangement was developed for the treatment of ascorbic acid (AA)‐treated sugarcane juice (AASCJ). The AASCJ was precooled to different temperatures (4, 17, and 30°C) and underwent HC processing for different durations (10, 20, 30, and 40 min). The quality parameters such as pH, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD) activity, viscosity, total color difference, microbial load, total phenolic, flavonoids, AA, and antioxidant activity were investigated. The processed AASCJ precooled to 4°C resulted in more than 90% retention in color, total phenolic content, flavonoid content, and antioxidant activity. The PPO and POD activities significantly reduced after HC treatment. A 3 log reduction in the microbial population was achieved during HC processing. The optimized condition for HC treatment of AASCJ was a precooling temperature of 4°C and a treatment time of 30 min.Practical applicationsSugarcane juice has a short shelf life due to the high rate of microbiological contamination and enzymatic reactions that occur shortly after extraction. Low‐temperature HC is a nonthermal approach for processing low viscous liquid foods. The HC processed AASCJ is microbiologically safe, with reduced PPO and POD activity, and better retention of bioactive compounds. The low‐temperature HC processing can be used instead of thermal processing to reduce both enzymatic and nonenzymatic browning reactions and eradicate pathogenic microorganisms while maintaining the sugarcane juice quality. This approach is simple to handle, requires little investment, and does not use environmentally hazardous chemicals.

Evaluation of the Bioactive Compounds, and Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Gluten-Free Muffins Enriched with Persimmon 'Rojo Brillante' Flour.

Because of the nutritional need of patients with celiac disease, producing quality gluten-free diet food is important. This study evaluated the use of persimmon flour on the properties of muffins. Persimmon flour obtained from the astringent variety 'Rojo Brillante', which is often discarded due to its characteristic astringency, was added to muffins replacing corn flour (10%, 20%, and 30%). Despite the height differences between the control muffin and the muffins with persimmon flour, similar mechanical parameters were obtained. As the percentage of persimmon flour increased, the muffin color was darker, turning toward a more reddish hue, mainly because of the intensification of nonenzymatic browning reactions. The sensory results showed high scores for taste attributes, the texture attributes were similar to the control, and astringency was hardly detected when persimmon flour was used. The content of tannins and carotenoids and their antioxidant activity increased significantly with an increasing amount of persimmon flour. After in vitro digestion, high recovery index values of soluble tannins and carotenoids were obtained in muffins with added persimmon flour. This study shows that the use of persimmon flour as a functional ingredient offers an opportunity to develop quality gluten-free muffins that reduce agricultural losses. Astringent varieties can be used, without applying a de-astringency treatment, as the astringency is removed during muffin baking due to tannins' insolubilization.

Comparative effect of different sugars instigating non-enzymatic browning and Maillard reaction products in guava fruit leather

Browning is a major quality deterioration process affecting both visual colour and nutritional value of guava leather. The aim of the study was to determine the role of different sugars viz., sucrose, fructose, glucose and sorbitol in non-enzymatic browning and antioxidant activity of guava fruit leather. The total free amino acids, ascorbic acid and antioxidant activities were at significantly lower levels in glucose and fructose treated guava leather, while the sorbitol added samples had all of above parameters at the highest level; while a reverse trend was observed in browning index and non-enzymatic browning. Among the browning intermediate products, Hydroxymethylfurfural was present at higher concentration (12.80-32.32 ng/g) than furfural (0.29-0.95 ng/g) in guava leather samples. Among the treatments, hydroxymethylfurfural was found lowest in sorbitol (12.8 ng/g) and highest in fructose (32.3 ng/g). In brief, this paper describes a novel effort in bringing the in-vitro studies related to sugars and total free amino acids, influencing the biochemical and nutritional attributes which are responsible for browning in guava fruit leather.

Factors influencing the nutritional composition, quality and safety of dried fishery products

Dried fishery products are popular processed food items throughout the world. Nowadays, the demand for nutritionally rich and safe dried fishery products is increasing. A substantial quality loss in dried fishery products occurs due to the chemical, microbiological and non-enzymatic browning reactions during handling, processing, drying, packaging, storage and distribution lead to influence the safety of the products. However, factors influencing the quality and safety of dried fishery products are poorly understood. Therefore, this review article discussed various quality and safety aspects of dried fishery products, such as raw material quality and pre-treatment, drying methods, additives use, extrinsic factors, irradiation, cold oxygen plasma treatment, corona discharge plasma, high hydrostatic pressure, packaging methods and materials used, storage condition and temperature, and so on, all of which have an impact on the final product. The ultimate aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of the current state of quality in dried fishery products and the techniques for improving it, which will aid processors in ensuring the quality and safety of dried fishery products for consumers in the long run. This review could also be used as a guide for future research and development of dried fishery products as well as ensuring consumer’s safety for both domestic and foreign markets.

Development of a gallic acid based time temperature indicator with adjustable activation energy

A time temperature indicator (TTI) is an intelligent packaging device that can monitor and reveal food quality loss through visualized information. In this study, a new TTI mechanism was demonstrated based on the nonenzymatic browning reaction of gallic acid (GA), a nontoxic, low-cost ingredient. The influence of pH condition (pH 8.0–6.0) on the chemical kinetics and coloring process of the GA aqueous solution (20 mM) was investigated. The coloring reaction was easily observable with the naked eye, exhibiting kinetics suitable for visualizing temperature's impact on food storage and transportation. The pH-dependent activation energies (Ea) of the proposed TTI ranged from 17.57 kJ/mol (at pH 8.0) to 70.36 kJ/mol (at pH 6.0). The milk quality model was also established through titratable acidity analysis, and the Ea was calculated to be 51.68 kJ/mol, correspond to the GA TTI with a pH of 6.5.

Physiochemical changes and nutritional content of black garlic during fermentation

This study was conducted to understand the reactions involved in black garlic fermentation, and thereby to determine its maturity stage. Black garlic was produced from fresh garlic after fermentation at 70–75 °C and 80–90% relative humidity up to 12 days in this study. The enzymatic hydrolysis of fructans and oligosaccharides, and endophytic bacterial action were likely to be the dominant processes at the initial stage, and followed by non-enzymatic browning Maillard reaction. Fructose was initially detected at the highest concentration and started to decrease after 10 days together with the exponential increase of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) content. The predominant acids were citric and succinic acids, whereas potassium was the most abundant minerals. The loss of pungent smell could be attributed to the degradation of sulfur containing compounds. The pH of fresh garlic was 6.61, and gradually decreased to <4.0 after 10 days. Fresh garlic lost about 22% of mass after aged in a high humidity environment. There was significant difference in the bioactivities of fresh and black garlic, but no difference among black garlic fermented for >8 days. Garlic fermentation involved multiple reactions including enzymatic hydrolysis, endophytic bacterial action, and non-enzymatic browning reaction to achieve maturity after 8 days.

Nonenzymatic Browning of Amorphous Maltose/Whey Protein Isolates Matrix: Effects of Water Sorption and Molecular Mobility

Nonenzymatic browning (NEB) reactions often affect the nutritional quality and safety properties of amorphous food solids. Developing a proper approach to control the NEB reaction has been of particular interest in the food industry. An NEB reaction in an amorphous maltose/Whey protein isolates (WPI) matrix containing L-lysine and D-xylose as reactants were studied at ambient temperatures aw ≤ 0.44 and 45~65 °C. The results indicated that the presence of NEB reactants barely disturbed the water sorption behavior of the matrix. The Guggenheim–Anderson–de Boer (GAB) constants and Qst values of the studied samples were affected by storage conditions as the migration of sorbed water among monolayers occurred. The rate of color changes and 5-hydoxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) accumulation on the matrix were accelerated at high ambient temperatures aw, reflecting the extent of NEB reaction increases. Since the strength concept (S) could give a measure of molecular mobility, the extent of the NEB reaction was governed by the molecular mobility of the matrix as the activation energy (Ea) of 5-HMF production minimized at solids with high S values. We found that the S concept had a considerable potential usage in controlling the NEB reaction on amorphous sugar–protein solids. This data set has practical significance in the comprehensive understanding of manipulating the diffusion-limited chemical reactions on low-moisture food solids.

Identification of Polyphenol and Reductone Antioxidants in the Caramelization Product of N-Acetylglucosamine

Caramelization is a nonenzymatic browning reaction of saccharides that occurs under thermal treatment. In this study, the radical scavenging activity of the thermal reaction products (caramels) from three modified hexoses [fucose, galacturonic acid, and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)] was evaluated. These three caramelization products showed more potent activity than that of the thermal reaction product from glucose, with the most significant activity observed in the product of NAG. A polyphenol and a reductone were detected as noticeable radical scavengers in the caramel of NAG. Subsequently, their radical scavenging activity and antioxidant activity against lipid oxidation were measured to reveal that the identified polyphenol had a superior antioxidant activity to that of Trolox.