Nondestructive Testing Of Materials Research Articles

Investigating electromagnetic acoustic emission signals denoising for alloy materials non-destructive detecting: a CRQA method

Aiming at the problem that signals collected from local electromagnetic loading operations are usually mixed with background noises (especially white noise), this paper proposed an electromagnetic acoustic emission signal denoising technology based on cross recurrence quantification analysis (CRQA). Firstly, the decomposition layer and penalty factor of variational mode decomposition (VMD) are set by experience or optimization algorithm, and then the original signal is decomposed. Secondly, the main components are selected by the CRQA algorithm, and the electromagnetic acoustic emission signal after denoising is obtained by superposition reconstruction. The simulation and experimental results show that when 5dB noise is added, CRQA can effectively remove the background noises in electromagnetic acoustic emission signals compared to the correlation coefficient algorithm, and it can assist in realizing the high-precision non-destructive testing of alloy materials.

Analysis and NDT applications of a gas discharge electroacoustic transducer

In this study, a gas discharge electroacoustic transducer (GDEAT) based on a pulsed electric discharge in the air under atmospheric pressure has been investigated. By evaluating acoustic pressure and recording amplitude-frequency characteristics of membranes, the acoustic characteristic of GDEATs have been obtained in the frequency range from 40 Hz to 4 MHz. The electro-thermo-acoustic processes have been studied in gas discharge systems of an open type where the electrode space is in a direct contact with the ambient. Some features of using the above-mentioned GDEATs in nondestructive testing (NDT) of materials have been demonstrated. It has been shown that, on one hand, the wear of both electrodes and insulation limits a work life of a transducer electrode system, but, from the other hand, this may lead to deposition of micro-particles on the surface of an object under test. The wear of electrode systems was evaluated quantitatively, and the results of the chemical analysis of deposited micro-particles have been presented. The use of a GDEATs for non-contact stimulation of local resonant vibrations in subsurface defects and visualizing vibrations by means of laser dopler vibrometry has been shown in the case of NDT of a glass fiber composite.

Design and Analysis of Micro Signal Detection Circuit for Magnetic Field Detection Utilizing Coil Sensors

Eddy current inspection has been extensively employed in non-destructive testing of various conductive materials. The coil probe, as a mainstream sensor in the eddy current detection system, inevitably encounters interference from external signals while transmitting its own signal. Therefore, developing techniques to extract valuable signals from noisy ones is crucial for ensuring accurate detection. Carbon fiber composites not only possess significantly lower electrical conductivity compared to conventional metallic materials but also exhibit notable anisotropy. To address this issue, we designed an ‘8’ coil probe set where the excitation coil does not electromagnetically interfere with the detection coil. However, practical applications that require portability and miniaturization pose challenges when utilizing this coil probe set to identify carbon content or defects due to the typically weak output signal. To address this issue, this paper proposes a design that combines the ‘8’ structure of the planar coil probe with the principle of phase-locked amplification to create a dual-phase sensitive phase-locked amplification detection circuit. These specific design ideas were tested using a weak signal, which passed through the preamplifier, secondary amplifier, and band-pass filter comprising the target channel for signal amplification and noise filtering. The effective signal amplitude is proportional to the inverse phase difference between the direct current (DC) signal and inversely proportional to the amplitude of the signal. Finally, the DC signal was passed through an analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The analog-to-digital converter (A/D) is used to collect and calculate the DC signal, enabling the detection of weak electrical signals. Simulation experiments demonstrated that the signal detection circuit has an amplitude error below 0.2% and a phase error below 0.5%. The phase-locked amplification circuit designed in this paper can effectively extract the tiny impedance change signals of the planar coil sensor probe with high sensitivity and good robustness.

Special Issue on Ultrasonic Modeling for Non-Destructive Testing

This Special Issue of Applied Sciences focuses on advancing modeling methods for the ultrasonic Non-destructive Testing (NDT) of materials [...]

Love waves propagation in layered viscoelastic waveguides characterized by a Zener model

This paper describes a theory of surface Love waves propagating in lossy waveguides consisting of a viscoelastic layer deposited on a semi-infinite elastic substrate. The Zener model to describe the viscoelastic behavior of a medium is used. This simple model captures both the relaxation and retardation. A new form of the unsteady momentum equation for viscoelastic waveguides has been established. By using appropriate boundary conditions, an analytical expression for the complex dispersion equation of Love waves has been deduced. The influence of the loss factor and the ratio of shear moduli of the surface layer on the dispersion curves of Love waves velocity and attenuation is analyzed numerically. The numerical solutions show the dependence of the velocity change and the wave attenuation in terms of the loss factor and the ratio of shear moduli. The obtained results show that the change in the ratio of shear moduli can represent a hardening or softening effect of the surface layer. These effects depend on the loss factor value of the surface layer. In addition, these results are novel, fundamental and can be applied in the characterization of the viscoelastic properties of soft biomaterials and tissues, in nondestructive testing of materials, in geophysics and seismology. Thus, the obtained complex dispersion equation can be very useful to interpret the experimental measurements of Love waves properties in viscoelastic waveguides.

Deep learning with filtering for defect characterization in pulsed thermography based non-destructive testing

Pulsed thermography is widely used for non-destructive testing of various materials. The temperature profile obtained after pulse heating is used to characterize the underlying defects in an object. In this paper, the automation of the process of defect visualization and depth quantification in pulsed thermography through various deep learning algorithms is reported. Stainless steel plate with artificial defects is considered for analysis. The raw temperature data is smoothed using moving average, Savitzky-Golay and quadratic regression filters to reduce noise. Thermal signal reconstruction, the conventional method to eliminate noise, is also used for generating filtered datasets. Defect visualization refers to identifying and locating the defects in an image sample and Mask region convolutional neural network (Mask R-CNN) is considered for not just detecting the defects but also locating them on the image. The located defects are utilized for depth estimation using the following networks-multi-layer perceptron (MLP), long short-term memory (LSTM) and gated recurrent units (GRU). The input to the networks is the temperature contrast characteristics which symbolizes the difference in temperature over defective and non-defective areas measured over 250 time points and output of the networks is the estimated depth. The study shows that LSTM based approach provides the least percentage error of 5.5% and is a very suitable approach for automation of defect characterization in pulsed thermography.

Specialists Training for the Radiation Type of Non-Destructive Testing Based on Digital Technologies

The purpose of research is the development of application software, including VR-technologies, to increase the number of trained specialists in radiation type of nondestructive testing by reducing the per capita load on radiographic laboratories while maintaining the amount of practical training, acquired competencies and formed relevant professional skills.Methods. Prerequisites for virtualization of the process of training specialists in nondestructive testing of structural materials and fabricated products are defined. The main factors of demand for industrial radiography simulator in relation to the practical part of the educational cycle on radiation type of nondestructive testing are considered. As a result of the analysis the most significant aspects of practical training, available for their virtual realization, are singled out. The results of software implementation of mathematical models of physical and physicochemical processes of ionizing radiation, attenuation and absorption of penetrating radiation within the scope of digital twin of radiographic image generation as a result of simulation of the technological process of radiation type of nondestructive testing are presented.Results. Performed practical implementation of didactic materials in the form of hardware and software VR-simulator as part of digital educational environment to solve the problems of training, retraining, preparation for certification of personnel and providing admission of specialists to work on radiation type of nondestructive testing at facilities. Physical and technological aspects are analyzed, modeling, algorithmization and software implementation of VR-simulator are performed. A comprehensive approach to the creation of a learning environment with the use of digital technologies is presented. Considered are the main components, their goals and objectives. The structure of a practical lesson and illustrations of the training process in a virtual environment are given. The results of approbation of training programs with integration of classes in VR-simulator of industrial radiography have shown that the total time of practice of trainees increases by 40-55% with simultaneous reduction of per capita radiographic laboratory load by more than 25%. The main directions of development and scaling of software and hardware solution using VR-technologies are given.Conclusion. The developed and tested hardware-software solution together with the results of scientific research suggests the possibility of application and development directions of the digital educational system with VR-environment. The proposed approach application will allow to reduce environmental and biomedical risks by reducing the requirements to safety of training with the use of software and hardware solution. Automation of testing task generation and knowledge control procedures on the basis of software tools and mathematical models application, including methods of artificial intelligence, will allow to achieve training term reduction and will contribute to further increase in the number of trained specialists in various types and methods of nondestructive testing. With the functional capabilities expansion and evolutionary development of hardware-software solution (industrial radiography simulator) on the basis of unified modular approach, software libraries and hardware-software interfaces, virtual simulator simplifies organization of the process of specialists training and knowledge control. Practical value of the digital virtual environment (VR-environment) development is revealed due to the transfer and scaling of the obtained hardware-software solution to other types and methods of nondestructive testing according to GOST R 56542-2019 " Non-destructive testing. Classification of types and method".

Mathematical modeling of diagnostics of thermoelastic layered medium

The article discusses the problems of non-destructive testing of multilayer composite materials. Technological influences during manufacturing and the influence of external factors during the operation of composite structures can lead to the occurrence of material defects, which manifests itself as heterogeneity and anisotropy of individual layers and, as such, affects thermomechanical processes in multilayer composites. In the work as a model of non-destructive testing, the mathematical problem of determining the thermomechanical characteristics of weakly inhomogeneous and weakly anisotropic layers of a multilayer half-space is formulated. The tests include measurements on the outer surface of the half-space of temperature and displacements arising as a result of thermoelastic processes initiated in a special way in the layered medium under study. An approach to solving the formulated problem, based on the linearization of the original nonlinear equations and the application of the method of stationary basic processes, is proposed.

Application of Terahertz Radiation in Non-Destructive Testing of Military-Designated Composite Materials

The non-destructive testing methods (NDT) are gaining significant attention due to their ability to monitor the objects structure without causing their damage. In recent years, studies focused on NDT have been directed towards imaging with the use of the terahertz (THz) waves. The presented study describes terahertz imaging-based NDT method and testing results on selected military-designated materials with intentionally introduced defects. The main aim of the work was to clearly detect various discontinuities in materials interior and thus, to show the possibilities of the newly developed terahertz-based testing method in transmission mode. The results confirmed high applicability of THz waves for monitoring various materials where each implemented flaw was easily distinguished. Therefore, the presented method looks promising for real applications in everyday practice.

Longitudinal wave propagation in an elastic cylinder embedded in a viscoelastic fluid

Abstract A novel analytical investigation of longitudinal wave propagation in an elastic cylinder embedded in a viscoelastic fluid is proposed. The Maxwell model is used to describe the viscoelastic fluid behavior. With appropriate boundary conditions, a complex dispersion equation of longitudinal wave has been established. The aim of this paper is to study the effect of the fluid rheological properties on the longitudinal wave characteristics (attenuation and velocity). It is shown that the attenuation is the sum of a viscous and non viscous component. The viscosity induced attenuation is predominant at low frequencies. On the other hand, the effect of the liquid amount and elastic cylinder radius on the attenuation and velocity are studied. A critical normalized liquid thickness is highlighted. Beyond this critical value, the influence of the outer boundary condition can be neglected. At last, among other interesting phenomena, it is highlighted that if the Deborah number increases, the attenuation decreases. This variation characterize a stiffening of the viscoelastic medium. In addition, the obtained results show that the viscosity measurement should be performed at low frequencies using small elastic cylinder radius. Accordingly, these investigations are novel and can be applied in geophysics, food industry, medicine, non-destructive testing of materials, design and development of fluid sensors.

Induction thermography for unidirectional CFRP composites: A novel inspection approach through global current path integration

In the evolving field of non-destructive testing of composite materials, induction thermography offers significant potential. However, its application to Unidirectional Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (UD CFRP) composites remains challenging due to the unavailability of global current paths. This study introduces a novel methodology to inspect UD CFRP composites using Induction Thermography by incorporating an additional conduction current loop between the composite layers. Initial proof-of-concept experiments were conducted on fiber tow and further validated on laminates. The findings substantiate that the integration of a global current path notably facilitates laminate heating, enhancing the induction thermographic inspection capability. An unexpected discovery in our research is the ability of a circular coil to detect fiber breakage in a laminate that is nearly an order of magnitude wider than the coil diameter, thus demonstrating the approach’s high sensitivity. The practical applicability of the proposed methodology was demonstrated using an external fixture. Moreover, this work proposes an innovative modification to the manufacturing process of non-crimp textiles by incorporating a conductive thread, envisaged to bolster the induction thermographic inspection efficiency further. Numerical modeling, closely aligning with experimental observations, provides a robust theoretical foundation for our work.

Automated crack detection on metallic materials with flying-spot thermography using deep learning and progressive training

ABSTRACT In non-destructive testing for metallic materials, ‘Flying-spot’ thermography allows the detection of cracks thanks to the scanning of samples by a local laser heat source observed in the infrared spectrum. However, distinguishing a crack from other surface structures such as air ducts or non-planar shapes on the material surface can be challenging in an automation perspective. To address this, we propose to use deep learning techniques, which can exploit contextual information but require a significant amount of labelled data. This study presents a training method based on curriculum learning and recent denoising diffusion models to generate synthetic images. The protocol progressively increases the complexity of training images, using successively simulated data from a multi-physics finite-element software, synthetically generated data with diffusion process, and finally real data. Several detection scores are measured for various machine learning and deep learning architectures, demonstrating the benefits of the proposed approach for regular application cases and degraded experimental conditions, consisting of limited thermal enlightenment recordings.

A modified synthetic aperture focusing algorithm used for transmission detection based on laser ultrasonics method

Compared with traditional ultrasonic nondestructive testing technology, the laser ultrasonics method (LU) has the advantages of high precision, non-contact, wide-band response, suitable for non-destructive testing (NDT) of materials having complex shapes or working in extreme environments such as the additive manufacturing (AM) process, etc. However, for a purely optical LU system, it is still limited by the poor reflection of rough/absorption surface of the material. In order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the signal detected on the rough surface of a sample, and to overcome the limitation of the resolution restricted by half wavelength, a modified Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) that can be used for internal defect detection of the material is proposed. The modified SAFT is based on LU centering transmission detection and it improves the resolution of the detection system by using the characteristics of ultrasonic propagation and its mode conversion. It is firstly studied in theory with a numerical model based on finite element method (FEM), and then it is applied in experiments to reconstruct the defect according to the signals detected by LU method. In our experiment, the artificial defects buried in an AM sample with diameter from 0.2 mm to 0.75 mm are successfully characterized by the SAFT imaging of ultrasonic signals. The results prove that the position of the defect in 3D and its size can be successfully obtained by the proposed SAFT.

Imaging elastic waves in solids: how to use laser feedback interferometry to visualize them.

The use of ultrasonic elastic waves is a well established technique for non-destructive testing of materials and structures, in particular to exploit the interaction of waves with structural features to detect and characterize defects. Optical methods offer the advantage of visualising the distribution of elastic waves in a non-contact manner without disturbing the elastic wave. In this work we propose a laser feedback interferometry (LFI) based system as a cost effective, non-contact, alternative to a well established laser Doppler vibrometer technique. We demonstrate the visualization of the elastic waves, using an example of an elastic wave propagating through a prismatic acrylic rod. We show that the ultra-compact and simple implementation of LFI enables accurate visualization of the elastic waves in solids, and opens the pathway to a range of new opportunities in ultrasonic non-destructive testing and evaluation.

Mathematical modeling of diagnostics of residual stresses in a layered medium

The work is devoted to the use of mathematical modeling in the framework of the problems of non-destructive testing of structural materials. A mathematical formulation of a three-dimensional problem of diagnostics for elastic layered medium is constructed, which makes it possible to determine the spatial distribution of residual stresses from the values of displacements measured on the surface of a layered half-space, which arose as a result of a specially initiated wave process. Under the assumption of weak inhomogeneity and anisotropy of the layers, a transition is made to a linearized (which is ill-posed) problem, the procedure for solving which is constructed using the method of stationary basic processes. As an example, the case of diagnosing a one-dimensional (depending only on the distance to the surface) distribution of residual stresses is considered.

Cyber Physical Production Systems for Deep Drawing

Abstract Deep Drawing is an essential manufacturing technology for car body parts. High process stability is a key to reducing scrap and therefore the ecological footprint during production. To deal with an unknown fluctuation of the incoming material properties and uncertainties considering the friction, an adaptive process needs to be implemented. Various approaches have been pursued in the past, but not all of them are suited for industrial series production with high demands for equipment durability, cost efficiency, and flexibility. For this reason, a new concept for cyber-physical production systems (CPPS) in deep drawing is presented, linking the data from the simulation, tool, press, material, and finished part quality. Two common application scenarios are distinguished. First, these are large outer parts with a complex geometry and high value, typically produced with tandem presses. Second, smaller structural parts from high-strength steel for the body in white (BIW) are usually produced through a transfer or progressive die. Non-destructive material testing, supplier material certificates, and data measured directly in the forming tool are considered regarding the input. The servo curve and blank holder force (BHF) operate as control instances. Within the two application scenarios, a reactive and a preventive solution are characterized. As a first step toward the implementation of the CPPS, material inflow, and force sensors are installed and tested in an industrially relevant deep drawing tool.

How Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Techniques and Numerical Simulations Can Work Together in the Evaluation of the Elastic Properties of Glasses

This paper presents the numerical simulation of the ultrasonic wave transmittance utilizing the elastodynamic finite integration technique (EFIT). With this methodology, it is possible to simulate the propagation of the ultrasound in a medium with a relatively low computational cost. The capability of this technique for determining the elastic properties of fluorophosphate and the aluminosilicate glasses is described in detail. The elastic constants of the glasses were calculated from the theoretically predicted longitudinal and transversal sound velocities and compared with the corresponding experimental data. Furthermore, the calculated and experimental elastic properties of the fluorophosphate and aluminosilicate glasses were correlated with the structural peculiarities of these glasses. This simulation technique is also suitable for unveiling the existence of possible defects in the glasses by comparing the experimental and simulation data. The EFIT technique is shown to be a very useful tool in order to provide fast and easy-to-acquire data regarding also the structural characteristics of various glassy systems. This can be used in conjunction with other spectroscopic techniques which can prove to be extremely useful for the non-destructive testing of vitreous materials. The latter can prove very important when vitreous materials used in optical or optoelectronic applications need continuous monitoring in order to ensure their optimum operation and functionality with limited intervention. The main contribution of this paper is the treatment of numerical time-domain modeling of 2D acoustic wave propagation in a viscoelastic medium by implementing the elastodynamic finite integration technique (EFIT).

Metasurface Optics With On-Axis Polarization Control for Terahertz Sensing Applications

Non-destructive testing and imaging of materials with unknown properties are important applications of terahertz technology. Different contrast forming methods are available to obtain diverse information on the imaged region, including intensity, color, phase and polarization. Polarimetric imaging is relatively under-investigated owing to the difficulty in its implementation with complex optical arrangements. In this paper we present the design and monolithic fabrication of an anisotropic metasurface that incorporates several beam forming functions in a single layer with high efficiency thus simplifying instrument construction. The probe beam generated by the metasurface consists of an orthogonally polarized pair of collinear Bessel beams that create a well-defined on-axis change of polarization. The metasurface is integrated into a polarimetric imaging microscope for 3D beam profiling and sensing experiments at 2.52 THz. An analytical model to describe the on-axis polarization variation was found to be in excellent agreement with both finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations and the experimental results. The setup was used to measure the refractive index and diattenuation of homogeneous sample regions in a proof-of-principle application. We anticipate this technology will find future application in non-destructive testing and polarimetric imaging of polymer composites and 3D profilometry of reflective surfaces.

Detection and Characterization of Artificial Porosity and Impact Damage in Aerospace Carbon Fiber Composites by Pulsed and Line Scan Thermography

Nondestructive testing (NDT) of composite materials is of paramount importance to the aerospace industry. Several NDT methods have been adopted for the inspection of components during production and all through the aircraft service life, with infrared thermography (IRT) techniques, such as line scan thermography (LST) and pulsed thermography (PT), gaining popularity thanks to their rapidity and versatility. On one hand, LST is an attractive solution for the fast inspection of large and complex geometry composite parts during production. On the other hand, PT can be employed for the characterization of composite materials, e.g., the determination of thermal diffusivity and defect depth estimation. In this study, the use of LST with an uncooled microbolometer camera is explored for the identification of artificially produced porosity and barely visible impact damage (BVID) on academic samples. The performance of LST is quantitatively assessed with respect to PT (considered the gold standard in this case) using a high-definition cooled camera through the contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) criterium. It is concluded that, although in most cases the measured CNR values were higher for PT than for LST (as expected since a high-definition camera and longer acquisition times were used), the majority of the defects were clearly detected (CNR ≥ 2.5) by LST without the need of advanced signal processing, proving the suitability of LST for the inspection of aerospace composite components. Furthermore, the deepest defect investigated herein (z ≈ 3 mm) was detected solely by LST combined with signal processing and spatial filtering (CNR = 3.6) and not by PT (since pulse heating was not long enough for this depth). In addition, PT was used for the determination of the thermal diffusivity of all samples and the subsequent depth estimation of porosity and damaged areas by pulsed phase thermography (PPT).

Model independent approach to proton polarization in photodisintegration of deuteron

In addition to other photonuclear reactions, the study of photonuclear reactions on deuterium targets is important for laser physics, nuclear physics, astrophysics, and a number of applications, including non-destructive testing of nuclear materials. In this paper, we have carried out a model independent analysis of proton polarization in photodisintegration of deuterons with initially unpolarized beam and unpolarized target. The angular dependence of the polarization is studied by expressing it in terms of multipole amplitudes.