Non-clinical Children Research Articles

Development of emotion comprehension in children with autism spectrum disorder and Williams syndrome.

Although research has shed light on the development of emotion comprehension in typically developing children, little is known about emotion comprehension in children who are developing atypically. Thus, this study examined the developmental trajectory of emotion understanding in non-clinical (NC) children and children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Williams syndrome (WS) using a Test of Emotion Comprehension. In the test, we measured children's understanding of (I) recognition of emotions based on facial expressions, (II) external causes of emotions, (III) desire-based emotions, (IV) belief-based emotions, (V) the influence of a reminder on a present emotional state, (VI) regulating an experienced emotion, (VII) hiding an emotional state, (VIII) mixed emotions, and (IX) moral emotions. A Bayesian modeling approach was applied to compare the developmental trajectories of emotion understanding across the syndrome groups. The results revealed that NC children and children with WS followed significantly different developmental trajectories in specific aspects of emotion understanding, while children with ASD followed a very similar path to NC children. Children with ASD and NC children gradually developed an understanding of each component of emotion comprehension as they matured. However, the understanding of some components, such as desire-based emotions, hiding an emotional state, and moral emotions, in children with WS was affected by their Autism Spectrum Quotient scores. This is one of the first cross-syndrome studies to assess the development of emotion comprehension in children with ASD and WS, providing important insights for understanding the nature of disability and advancing the development of intervention programs.

Childhood experiences and dissociation among high school students in China: Theoretical reexamination and clinical implications.

Dissociation remains a controversial topic in terms of its prevalence, cross-cultural validity, and relationship with childhood trauma and adversities. This study investigated the prevalence of dissociative symptoms and probable dissociative disorders among Chinese high school students and tested the trauma model of dissociation. A total of N = 1,720 high school students completed standardized measures of positive and adverse childhood experiences (PCEs and ACEs), dissociation, depression, and anxiety. The prevalence rates of dissociative symptoms and (probable) DSM-5 dissociative disorders (DDs) were 11.2% and 6.9%, respectively. Dissociation was a reliable construct (ICC = .682 to .752, p < .001) and was moderately correlated with general psychopathology (r = .424 with depressive symptoms, r = .423 with anxiety symptoms). Participants with a probable DD reported more ACEs, fewer PCEs, and more mental health symptoms than those without a probable DD. ACEs were significantly associated with dissociative symptoms (β = .107, p < .001) even after controlling for age, depressive, and anxiety symptoms. PCEs moderated the relationship between ACEs and dissociative symptoms. This is the first report of the prevalence of dissociative symptoms and probable DSM-5 DDs among nonclinical children. We provide cross-cultural evidence that dissociation is a reliable and valid clinical phenomenon associated with psychopathology in children across cultures. The findings partly support the trauma model of dissociation. This study contributes to the limited literature on dissociation in children. It also offers empirical data to facilitate the ongoing controversy about (childhood) trauma and dissociation. Our findings imply that dissociation is cross-culturally associated with childhood adversities, but trauma is not the only, sufficient cause. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Attachment Stories in Middle Childhood: Reliability and Validity of Clinical and Nonclinical Children's Narratives in a Structured Setting.

Middle childhood is one of the most understudied periods of development and lacks a gold standard for measuring attachment representations. We investigated the reliability and validity of a Dutch version of the Story-Stem Battery coded using the Little Piggy Narrative (LPN) Coding System in a clinical (N = 162) and a nonclinical group (N = 98) of 4–10-year-old children. Their attachment stories were furthermore coded using the coherence scale. Factor analyses showed that the items of the LPN system formed four attachment scales and a separate scale reflecting distress/anxiety, with sufficient internal consistency for the scales and high interrater reliability (n = 20). Furthermore, we studied construct and discriminatory validity. The attachment scores correlated with coherence and child behavioral problems in the expected direction. Results showed age and gender differences, indicating that separate norm groups are necessary. In particular, disorganized attachment, coherence and distress/anxiety differ between clinical and nonclinical children across age and gender. Results for the other three organized attachment scales were more complex. For instance, older boys from the nonclinical group had higher scores on secure attachment than their clinical peers, while girls from the clinical and nonclinical groups did not differ, even though girls in the nonclinical group had higher secure attachment scores than boys. Results are discussed in light of attachment theory and developmental pathways in middle childhood, as well as their clinical implications.

Odor Identification Ability as a Mediator of Schizotypal Traits and Odor Hedonic Capacity in Non-Clinical Children and Adolescents.

Background: Previous studies have investigated the relationship between schizotypal traits and odor identification ability as well as the relationship between schizotypal traits and odor hedonic capacity in adults. However, very little is known about the relationship among these three factors, especially in children and adolescents. The current study aimed to explore the relationship among these three factors in children and adolescents as well as the potential role of odor identification ability. Method: A total of 355 non-clinical children and adolescents (aged 9–16 years) were recruited in the study. They were asked to complete the Universal Sniff Test (U-Sniff), the Chemosensory Pleasure Scale for Children (CPS-C), and the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire—Child (SPQ-C). Results: The SPQ-C scores were negatively correlated with both the odor identification scores and the odor hedonic scores (p = 0.022 and p < 0.001, respectively). Only the interpersonal–affective factor of the SPQ-C was negatively correlated with the odor identification scores (p = 0.031). The odor identification scores were significantly positively associated with the odor hedonic scores (p < 0.001). Moreover, the relationship between odor hedonic capacity and schizotypal traits, especially the interpersonal–affective factor, was mediated by odor identification ability. Conclusions: Schizotypal traits were negatively correlated with both odor identification ability and odor hedonic capacity in children and adolescents, while odor identification ability was found to mediate the relationship between odor hedonic capacity and schizotypal traits, especially the interpersonal–affective factor. Our study indicated that improving odor identification ability through olfactory training may have a positive influence on odor hedonic capacity in individuals with schizotypal traits.

Childhood Disorder: Dysregulated Self-Conscious Emotions? Psychopathological Correlates of Implicit and Explicit Shame and Guilt in Clinical and Non-clinical Children and Adolescents.

This study examined psychopathological correlates of implicit and explicit shame and guilt in 30 clinical and 129 non-clinical youths aged 8–17 years. Shame and guilt were measured explicitly via two self-reports and a parent report, and implicitly by means of an Implicit Association Test (IAT), while a wide range of psychopathological symptoms were assessed with questionnaires completed by children, parents, and teachers. The results showed no differences of implicit and explicit shame and guilt between the clinical and non-clinical group, implying that dysregulation of these self-conscious emotions is not per definition associated with psychopathology. Correlational analyses indicated that self-reported explicit shame was positively associated with a broad range of internalizing psychopathology, while self-reported explicit guilt was associated with higher levels of anxiety and to some extent lower levels of externalizing psychopathology. Correlations with parent-rated shame and guilt revealed the same pattern of results but were in general weaker. Furthermore, implicit shame and guilt did not show significant correlations with the various measures of psychopathology. It can be concluded that the link between shame and guilt and psychopathology is complex, and partly dependent on the disorder under study and context-related factors defining the maladaptive nature of these self-conscious emotions.

The children's eating attitudes test: French validation of a short version.

Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors (DEAB) in childhood have been prospectively associated with eating disorders and obesity in adolescence. Therefore, evaluating DEAB in children with a reliable, sensitive and well-adapted scale is very important. The Children's Eating Attitudes Test (ChEAT) is one of the most popular measuring tools for DEAB in children, but no French version is available. Moreover, while completion time is an important factor to be considered when working with children, only one recent study proposed a shorter version of the ChEAT. Taking the previous works of Murphy and colleagues (2019) as a starting point, the current study aimed to provide the first French-speaking validated 14-item short version of the ChEAT. A sample of 1092 boys and girls aged between 8 and 12years old were recruited in two urban areas in the province of Quebec, Canada. They completed the ChEAT, and their height and weight were measured at school. Factorial structure and internal consistency were assessed. After the initial factorial analysis, two "vomiting (or purging)" items were yielded as problematic and were thus removed from the analysis. The remaining 12 items provided a good fit to the data and a good internal consistency. Moreover, the factorial structure was proved to be invariant across sexes. This study is the first to provide a French assessment of DEAB in elementary school children. The French short version of the ChEAT provided a quick and reliable assessment for DEAB with non-clinical children population and could be used as a screening tool, even though no cut-off was established yet. Cross-sectional, descriptive study, Level V.

The Influence of Negative Feedback and Social Rank on Feelings of Shame and Guilt: A Vignette Study in 8- to 13-Year-Old Non-Clinical Children

This experimental study examined the role of negative feedback and social rank in the experience of self-conscious emotions, shame and guilt, in typically developing children aged 8 to 13 years. Participants were tested by means of a vignette paradigm in which feedback and social rank were systematically manipulated and levels of shame and guilt were assessed after listening to each of the vignettes. In addition, children completed a set of questionnaires for measuring individual differences in shame and guilt proneness, social comparison, submissive behavior, and external shame. The results showed that children presented with negative feedback reported higher ratings of shame and guilt than when presented with positive feedback, implying that the provision of negative feedback has a significant impact on children’s experience of self-conscious emotions. Social rank had less effect on children’s report of these self-conscious emotions. Furthermore, the individual difference variables of guilt proneness, and to a lesser extent shame proneness and submissive behavior, appeared to be positively related to self-conscious emotions as reported during the vignette task.

The Reliability, Validity and Normative Scores of the Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test for Use With Arab Children.

Background: The Bene-Anthony Family Relations Test (BAFRT) is one of the most widely used measures of family dynamics seen from a child’s perspective. However, the most common issue surrounding this test is the lack of accurate normative scores for use with non-white ethnic groups. The purpose of this study was to examine the BAFRT’s reliability and validity for use with Arab children, as well as to provide normative data for this group. Methods: The BAFRT was translated into Arabic and back-translated to ensure accuracy. The test was administered to a cohort of 394 Arab children, consisting of both cognitively normal children (n = 269) and children diagnosed with a psychological disorder (n = 125), all aged 5–8 years old. Test-retest reliability was assessed using a sub-set of children and validity was tested against clinical status as well as CBCL and SDQ measures. Normative measures were calculated after examining the impact of influencing variables such as age and gender. Results: Statistical analyses showed that in our cohort of Arab children the BAFRT has good test-retest reliability, correlates well with measures of emotional and behavioral adjustment, and discriminates accurately between clinical and non-clinical children. Age, gender, and clinical status all significantly impacted upon BAFRT scores and therefore normative values are presented from our cohort when considering these variables. Conclusion: The normative scores we present will provide researchers and clinicians an appropriate reference point for the comparison of scores from Arab children and a starting point for future research into this area.

Validity and Reliability of Youth Anxiety Measure for DSM-5 in Iranian Non-Clinical Children and Adolescents.

The present study aimed to explore the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the Youth Anxiety Measure for DSM-5 (YAM-5). Two groups of non-clinical children and adolescents were recruited. The first group (n = 520) was recruited via 4 schools of Tehran, Iran, and only completed the YAM-5. The second group (n = 557) was recruited via 4 schools of Tabriz, Iran. In addition to the YAM-5, they completed another anxiety scale and a depression scale. The exploratory factor analysis of data of the first group revealed a five factor model similar to the original model of the scale. The confimatory factor analysis showed that the five factor model fit with the data of second group. Also, the convergent validity was supported. The current findings, thus, provide support for validity and reliability of Persian version of the YAM-5 in a nonclinical sample of children and adolescents in Iran.

Validation of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD in Chinese children as per the ICD-11 proposals using the International trauma questionnaire

ABSTRACT Background: Given that the validity of applying complex posttraumatic stress disorder (CPTSD) in nonclinical children remains unclear. Objectives: The current study aimed to explore the factor structure, discriminant validity, and risk factors of ICD-11 posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and CPTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire. Methods: A total of 3478 trauma-exposed Chinese children aged 9–12 years were included in this study. All participants were assessed for PTSD and CPTSD using the International Trauma Questionnaire (ITQ). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to explore the factor structure of CPTSD in a sample of Chinese children. Latent class analysis (LCA) was employed to evaluate the discriminant validity of CPTSD symptoms. Multinomial logistic regression analyses determined associations between the different classes and traumatic events. Results: The CFA results showed that the first-order six-factor model was identified as the best-fitting model in Chinese children aged 9–12 years. Four different classes, CPTSD symptoms, PTSD symptoms, disturbances in self-organization (DSO) symptoms, and a low symptom class were found by LCA. Both prolonged interpersonal trauma and other types of trauma were risk factors for the CPTSD class and the PTSD class. Conclusions: The results of this study partially support the factorial validity and strongly support the discriminant validity of the ICD-11 proposals for PTSD and CPTSD in Chinese children, supporting the conceptualization of PTSD and CPTSD as sibling diagnoses based on the ICD-11. However, findings suggest the need for careful consideration of identified trauma types in the ICD-11 proposals.

Disconfirmation of confirmation bias: the influence of counter-attitudinal information

The current experiment investigated whether counter-attitudinal information can alter a pre-existing attitude and the accompanying confirmation bias. Sixty-three non-clinical children (9–12 years) were shown pictures of a positive animal (quokka) or a dangerous-looking animal (aye aye). For both animals attitudes and information seeking patterns were obtained. Next, they received counter-attitudinal information of each animal; attitudes and seeking patterns were reassessed. We found that the aye aye was perceived as more dangerous and less kind compared to the quokka. A negative confirmation bias was observed for the aye aye, more negative than positive or neutral information was requested. For the quokka this pattern was absent, more positive and negative than neutral information was selected. The counter-attitudinal information decreased the scariness of the aye aye, but did marginally alter that of the quokka. Additionally, for the aye aye counter-attitudinal information increased search for positive and neutral information and decreased search for negative information. For the quokka the counter-attitudinal information only increased search for neutral information. The animals no longer differed from each other and no clear confirmation bias patterns were present. These results indicate that it is possible to change pre-existing values and their accompanying information search patterns.

Effective Components of Social Skills Training Programs for Children and Adolescents in Nonclinical Samples: A Multilevel Meta-analysis.

Social skills training (SST) programs for nonclinical children and adolescents are known to have positive effects on social skills, but it remains unclear how distinct training components are related to program effects. This multilevel meta-analysis examines how psychoeducation (i.e., exercises aimed at the transfer of knowledge), psychophysical components (i.e., physical exercises aimed at improving self-confidence and trust in others), skill-building components (i.e., exercises aimed at improving interpersonal skills), and cognitive-emotional components (i.e., exercises aimed at changing emotions and cognitions) are independently related to SST program effects. We extracted data from 97 articles describing 839 effect sizes. Training content data were extracted from 60 corresponding SST programs. Our results showed that SST programs had a positive effect on the development of interpersonal skills and emotional skills in nonclinical samples: d = .369, 95% CI [.292, .447], p < .001. This effect was positively influenced by the inclusion of psychoeducation and skill-building components. The inclusion of psychophysical components and the number of cognitive-emotional components did not influence program effects. For psychoeducation and skill-building components, we observed a curvilinear relationship between intensity and effect size: programs including three to six psychoeducational exercises yielded larger effect sizes compared to programs with more or fewer psychoeducational exercises, and programs with 11 to 20 skill-building exercises outperformed programs with more or fewer skill-building exercises. These findings are an indication that psychoeducational components and skill-building components are related to larger SST program effects, granted that the dosage is right.

Relationship between parenting stress and children's behavioral characteristics in Japan.

The evaluation of a child tends to differ between the mother and father regardless of whether the child has a disability or not, although parents have key information about the behavioral characteristics of the child. The number of reports in Japan, however, is limited. We, therefore, investigated the relationship between the parenting stress experienced by parents of non-clinical preschool children and the children's behavioral characteristics. The subjects were 83 pairs of mothers and fathers with non-clinical children in kindergarten and nursery school (average age, 59.1 ± 13.0months; 36 boys, 47 girls). The study was conducted using the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). There was no difference in the PSI-SF scores between mothers and fathers, but hyperactivity/inattention, peer relationship problems, and the total score of the SDQ were significantly higher in fathers. On multiple regression analysis, parenting stress experienced by fathers was significantly related to hyperactivity/inattention, while parenting stress experienced by mothers was significantly related to peer relationship problems and emotional symptoms. Children's behavioral characteristics related to parenting stress differ between mothers and fathers.

Gender differences in occurrence of behavioral and emotional problems at the lower grades of elementary school: Association with developmental and behavioral characteristics at 5 years

AimWe examined whether developmental status and behavioral problems at age five were related to the occurrence of behavioral and emotional problems in the lower grades of elementary school among non-clinical children who did not receive specialized support for developmental problems in early childhood. MethodsThe participants were 367 (non-clinical: 325) second- and third-grade elementary school children. The mean age at follow-up was 7.63 (SD = 0.62). Parents completed a questionnaire about their children’s developmental status and behavioral problems during a community health check-up for 5-year-olds. Behavioral and emotional problems at school age were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The association between developmental and behavioral characteristics at age five and each of the SDQ subscales at school age was analyzed with logistic regression. ResultsHyperactivity/inattention, conduct problems, and emotional problems at school age were associated with developmental and behavioral factors in 5-year-olds. The problem of hyperactivity/inattention at school age was associated with hyperactivity/inattention in both genders, and significant gender differences were identified. The relationship with hyperactivity at the age of five was significant for boys, whereas the relationship with inattention was only significant for girls. Emotional problems were significantly associated with social behaviors and developmental status at five years of age only in girls. ConclusionsIt is necessary for clinicians and teachers to consider the relation of developmental and behavioral characteristics to the background of behavioral and emotional problems at school age and to be aware of gender differences.

The Development and Validation of a Basic Psychological Needs Scale for Children (BPNS-C)

Objectives This study aims to develop and validate a basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration scale for school-aged children. Methods A total of 49 preliminary questions were extracted using the Delphi method. These questions were first composed through pilot studies and a group interview with children. The present study was conducted among students in 4th to 6th grade in elementary school. The data of a total of 455 participants were analyzed through exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and correlations. Results The results of factor analysis identified a total of 33 questions constituting 6 factors (autonomy need satisfaction, competence need satisfaction, relationship need satisfaction, autonomy need frustration, competence need frustration, and relationship need frustration). This scale showed a significant correlation with life satisfaction, school adjustment, aggression, and depression variables, which verified the convergent validity. A comparison of the means of basic psychological needs of clinical and nonclinical children showed a significant difference, verifying the discriminant validity of the scale. Finally, the results of calculating internal consistency coefficient and split-halves reliability coefficient showed that the scale was reliable. Conclusions This study is meaningful, in that it developed a reliable and valid scale to measure the satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs, reflecting children’s actual experiences and developmental characteristics. Keywords: basic psychological needs, children, scale development, validation

A Longitudinal Study on the Relations Among Fear-Enhancing Parenting, Cognitive Biases, and Anxiety Symptoms in Non-clinical Children

This longitudinal study explored the relations between fear-enhancing parenting behaviors (modeling and threat information transmission) and children’s cognitive biases and anxiety symptoms on three subsequent time points over a one-year period. Participants were 216 children aged 7–12 years (114 boys and 102 girls), and their mothers (n = 199) and/or fathers (n = 117). On each time point, children and parents completed the Parental Enhancement of Anxious Cognitions scale, which measures parental modeling and threat information transmission. Furthermore, children filled in a measure of anxiety disorder symptoms. In addition, confirmation bias and interpretation bias were measured by means of a number of computerized tasks. The results yielded support for a circular model in which cognitive biases enhanced anxiety symptoms, which in turn promoted cognitive biases on each of the three time points. However, no evidence was found for longitudinal effects of cognitive biases on anxiety or vice versa. In contrast to what we expected, cognitive biases and anxiety appeared to promote parental modeling and threat information rather than the other way around. These findings extend research on the relations between parenting behaviors, cognitive biases, and childhood anxiety symptoms, and suggest valuable leads for assessment and intervention.

Psychometric properties of the chinese version of autism spectrum quotient-children's version: A sex-specific analysis.

A Simplified Chinese translation of the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Children's Version (AQ-C) is needed for research in mainland China. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a condition that differs in presentation and prevalence by sex. Thus, evaluating the psychometric validity of the AQ-C in males and females is an important step in its validation. The present study aims to develop a Chinese translation of the parent-report AQ-C, and test its psychometric properties among Mandarin Chinese speaking boys and girls. A total of 1,020 non-clinical children and 134 children with ASD were assessed. Factor analyses were performed for the whole sample, as well as for girls and boys separately. A 30-item, 5-factor model (the Chinese AQ-C) showed adequate goodness of fit (root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.037; comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.907; Tucker-Lewis index [TLI] = 0.901) for the whole sample. According to parents' reports, non-clinical boys had significantly higher scores than non-clinical girls on the Chinese AQ-C. Sex-specific factor structures were identified resulting in a 4-factor model with 32 items for girls (the Chinese AQ-Girls), and a 4-factor model with 34 items for boys (the Chinese AQ-Boys). The cut-off scores of the Chinese AQ-C, AQ-Girls, and AQ-Boys were 44.5, 42.5, and 46.5, respectively. These three Chinese versions of the AQ-C all showed satisfactory internal consistency (α = 0.786-0.840) and concurrent validity with the Social Responsiveness Scale (r = 0.789-0.814) for the total scale. Differences have been found in the sex-specific factor structures of the AQ-C which would be more reliable to use for future research when measuring autistic traits in the general population. Autism Res 2019, 12: 303-315 © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: This study developed Chinese versions of the Autism Spectrum Quotient-Children's Version (AQ-C) in Chinese boys and girls together and separately. The AQ-C showed good psychometric properties in boys and girls together and separately. There were differences in sex-specific factor structures of the AQ-C. These results suggest that the sex-specific Chinese versions of the AQ-C provide reliable and valid measurement of autistic traits.

Gender Variance and the Autism Spectrum: An Examination of Children Ages 6-12 Years.

Gender variance (GV) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) frequently co-occur in clinical populations. We investigated GV in association with ASD characteristics in nonclinical children and in children with developmental/mental health diagnoses. In 6-12-year-olds (N = 2445; 51% birth-assigned boys), the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children measured GV and the Children's Social Behavior Questionnaire measured six subdomains of ASD characteristics. Among nonclinical children, GV was associated with parent-reported difficulties orienting socially and stereotyped behaviors. GV was also associated with parent-reported clinical diagnoses of ASD, sensory processing disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder. These findings suggest associations between specific ASD characteristics and GV in nonclinical children. Also, childhood GV should be further examined in a range of clinical populations, including ASD individuals.

Development and reliability of the Prospective Memory Assessment for Children & Youth (PROMACY): A preliminary study in a nonclinical sample

Prospective memory (PM), “remembering to remember,” has been linked to important functional outcomes in adults. Studies of PM in children and adolescents would benefit from the development and validation of developmentally appropriate clinical measures with known psychometric properties. The Prospective Memory Assessment for Children & Youth (PROMACY), a performance-based measure of PM, was developed for the Pediatric HIV/AIDS Cohort Study Adolescent Master Protocol, Memory and Executive Functioning Substudy, and includes Summary, Time-, and Event-based scores derived from eight trials with an ongoing word search task. Fifty-four healthy perinatally HIV-exposed, uninfected children and youth, mean age 13 years, 54% female, 76% Black/non-Hispanic, and 61% impoverished were included in this psychometric analysis. PROMACY Summary Scores demonstrated low, but broadly acceptable internal consistency as measured by Cronbach’s alpha and Spearman-Brown. Better PROMACY performance was associated with older age, but no other demographic factors. Generally medium-sized correlations were observed between the PROMACY Summary Score and standard clinical measures of retrospective memory, working memory, executive functions, and IQ. Findings from this preliminary psychometric study of nonclinical children and youth provide cautious support for the internal consistency and construct validity of PROMACY’s Summary Score that awaits replication and extension in larger samples of healthy children, youth and clinical populations.

The relation between generalized anxiety disorder symptoms and content-specific interpretation biases for auditory stimuli in children

Background and objectivesCognitive theories of fear suggest that biases in interpretation are content-specific: Fearful children should only interpret materials negatively if they are specifically related to the content of their fear. So far, there are only a few studies available that report on this postulated content-specificity of interpretation processes in childhood fear. The goal of this study was to examine interpretation bias and its content-specificity in children with varying levels of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) symptoms. MethodsIn an Auditory Interpretation Task (AIT), two words that differ by one phoneme are acoustically blended so that one can hear only one of the words. In the current AIT, we included GAD-related blends, negatively-valenced fear-related blends and positive blends. Multiple-choice (n = 371) or open-ended (n = 295) responses were collected from 666 nonclinical children between 7 and 13 years of age. ResultsChildren with higher levels of self-reported GAD showed significantly more negative interpretations of ambiguous GAD-related blends in the multiple-choice version than children with lower levels of GAD. There were no differences when interpreting the other ambiguous blends. This result was not found with the open-ended version. LimitationsEffects were relatively small, some GAD-stimuli were sub-optimal, and the task was administered in a classroom setting. Even though we ensured that all children were able to hear all words clearly, this may have impacted the results. ConclusionsThe findings only partly support the idea that fearful children display cognitive biases specific for fear-relevant stimuli, and more research is needed to replicate the results and test the usability of the AIT.