Noncardiac Surgery In Children Research Articles

Association between intraoperative hypothermia and outcomes in neonatal patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery

Objective: To investigate the impact of intraoperative hypothermia on postoperative outcome in neonatal patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery. Methods: The data of 1 008 neonates undergoing non-cardiac surgery in Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine from January 2020 to October 2022 were retrospectively collected,which included 558 males and 450 females, with a midian age [M (Q1, Q3)] of 6 (2, 14) days. Neonates were divided into 4 groups according to whether hypothermia (below 36 ℃) occurred and the lowest body temperature during the surgery: normal temperature group (n=246), mild hypothermia group (the lowest temperature ranged 35.0-35.9 ℃, n=434), moderate hypothermia group (the lowest temperature ranged 34.0-34.9 ℃, n=232) and severe hypothermia group (the lowest temperature<34 ℃, n=96). The primary outcome was the incidence of intraoperative hypothermia. The four groups' difference of postoperative hospital stay, postoperative mortality within 30 days, postoperative pulmonary complications, postoperative hemorrhage/blood transfusion and acidosis were compared. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyze the relationship between intraoperative hypothermia and prolonged postoperative hospital stay (>14 d), 30 d-mortality and other complications. Results: In the 1 008 neonatal patients, 762 (75.6%) cases suffered intraoperative hypothermia, among which the incidence of mild, moderate and severe hypothermia was 43.1% (434/1008), 23.0% (232/1008) and 9.5% (96/1008), respectively. The postoperative hospital stay in normal, mild, moderate and severe hypothermia groups was 9.0 (5.8, 18.0), 12.0 (7.0, 21.0), 17.0 (10.0, 34.5) and 31.5 (12.5, 55.8) days. The mortality rate with 30 days after surgery was 2.9% (7/246), 4.4% (19/434), 6.9% (16/232) and 14.7% (14/96), the incidence of postoperative pulmonary complications was 31.7%(78/246), 39.9%(173/434), 44.8%(104/232) and 67.4%(64/96), the rate of postoperative hemorrhage/blood transfusion was 19.9%(49/246), 32.3%(140/434), 49.1%(114/232) and 79.0%(75/96), and the incidence of acidosis was 26.8%(66/246), 35.7%(155/434), 44.4%(103/232) and 46.3%(44/96), respectively. All differences were statistically significant (all P<0.05). According to the adjusted logistic regression analysis, compared with the normal body temperature group, severe hypothermia was associated with prolonged postoperative hospital stay (OR=1.962, 95%CI: 1.063-3.619) and postoperative pulmonary complications (OR=2.020, 95%CI: 1.149-3.553). The mild, moderate and severe hypothermia group could increase the risk of postoperative blood/transfusion rate (mild: OR=1.690, 95%CI: 1.080-2.644; Moderate: OR=2.382, 95%CI: 1.444-3.927; Severe: OR=8.334, 95%CI: 3.123-8.929). The mild and moderate hypothermia could raise the risk of acidosis (mild: OR=1.458, 95%CI: 1.009-2.107; Moderate: OR=1.949, 95%CI: 1.279-2.972). Conclusion: Intraoperative hypothermia can prolong the postoperative hospital stay, and increase the risk of postoperative mortality, postoperative pulmonary complications, postoperative hemorrhage/transfusion, and acidosis.

Anaesthesia for non-cardiac surgery in children and young adults with Fontan physiology.

Patients with Fontan physiology require non-cardiac surgery. Our objectives were to characterise perioperative outcomes of patients with Fontan physiology undergoing non-cardiac surgery and to identify characteristics which predict discharge on the same day. Children and young adults with Fontan physiology who underwent a non-cardiac surgery or an imaging study under anaesthesia between 2013 and 2019 at a single-centre academic children's hospital were reviewed in a retrospective observational study. Continuous variables were compared using the Wilcoxon rank sum test, and categorical variables were analysed using the Chi-square test or Fisher's exact test. Multivariable logistic regression analysis results are presented by adjusted odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals and p values. 182 patients underwent 344 non-cardiac procedures with anaesthesia. The median age was 11 years (IQR 5.2-18), 56.4% were male. General anaesthesia was administered in 289 (84%). 125 patients (36.3%) were discharged on the same day. On multivariable analysis, independent predictors that reduced the odds of same-day discharge included the chronic condition index (OR 0.91 per additional chronic condition, 95% CI 0.76-0.98, p = 0.022), undergoing a major surgical procedure (OR 0.17, 95% CI 0.05-0.64, p = 0.009), the use of intraoperative inotropes (OR 0.48, 95% CI 0.25-0.94, p = 0.031), and preoperative admission (OR = 0.24, 95% CI: 0.1-0.57, p = 0.001). In a contemporary cohort of paediatric and young adults with Fontan physiology, 36.3% were able to be discharged on the same day of their non-cardiac procedure. Well selected patients with Fontan physiology can undergo anaesthesia without complications and be discharged same day.

Use of combined cerebral and somatic renal near infrared spectroscopy during noncardiac surgery in children: a proposed algorithm.

Cerebral near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) monitoring has been extensively applied in neonatology and in cardiac surgery, becoming a standard in many pediatric cardiac centers. However, compensatory physiological mechanisms favor cerebral perfusion to the detriment of peripheral tissue oxygenation. Therefore, simultaneous measurement of cerebral and somatic oxygen saturation has been advocated to ease the differential diagnosis between central and peripheral sources of hypoperfusion, which may go undetected by standard monitoring and not mirrored by cerebral NIRS alone. A clinical algorithm already exists in cardiac surgery, aimed to correct intraoperative cerebral oxygen desaturations. A similar algorithm still lacks in noncardiac pediatric surgery. The goal of this paper is to propose a clinical algorithm for the combined use of cerebral and somatic NIRS monitoring during anesthesia in the pediatric population undergoing noncardiac surgery. A panel of experienced pediatric anesthetists developed the algorithm that is based on the clinical experience and intraoperative observations. It aims to lessen the current variability in interpreting NIRS measurement. Multisite NIRS monitoring was achieved applying one pediatric sensor to the forehead for cerebral tissue perfusion reading and a second one to the decumbent lumbar region for recording somatic renal tissue perfusion. The algorithm describes a sequence of acts aimed to identify the putative cause of intraoperative organ tissue desaturation and suggests clinical interventions expected to restore adequate tissue perfusion. It is composed of two arms: the main arm includes patients with an observed decrease in cerebral perfusion (CrO2), the second one includes those with a stable CrSO2 with declining RrSO2. Described also are five clinical cases of infants and neonates in whom pathological alterations of organ perfusion were detected using intraoperative multisite NIRS monitoring, portrayed in the accompanying figures (Annex).

Predictors and occurrence of postoperative cognitive dysfunction in children undergoing noncardiac surgery: A prospective cohort study.

In children after cardiac surgery, alterations in cognitive ability and behavior are increasingly common, but whether postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) occurs in children undergoing noncardiac surgery is not known. The present study was performed to investigate the incidence rate and potential risk factors of early neurocognitive dysfunction in children after noncardiac surgery. Two hundredpatients aged between 4 and 14 years old underwent elective noncardiac surgery and 100 healthy age-matched controls were enrolled in this prospective observational study. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised were conducted 1 daybefore and 3 days after surgery. POCD was calculated and diagnosed as a combined Z score. Any factors that differed between POCD and non-POCD group (p < 0.10) were tested together by multivariate logistic regression analysis against the cognitive outcome of patients, to find out the independent risk factors of POCD. The general incidence of POCD was 15.6%. The univariate analysis revealed that POCD was associated with general anesthesia, surgical and anesthesia duration, early postoperative fever (EPF), and surgical history. However, only the history of surgery (p = 0.029), anesthesia duration (p = 0.010), and EPF (p < 0.001) were demonstrated to be independent risk factors for POCD. The occurrence rate of early POCD after noncardiac surgery in children is 15.6%. Children who had surgical history, longer anesthesia duration, or EPF are more prone to develop POCD.

Risk Factors and Consequences of Acute Kidney Injury After Noncardiac Surgery in Children.

Postoperative acute kidney injury (AKI) is a serious complication that is associated with prolonged hospital stay, high risk of short-term postsurgical mortality, need for dialysis, and possible progression to chronic kidney disease. To date, very little data exist on the risk of postoperative AKI among children undergoing noncardiac surgical procedures. We used data from a large multicenter cohort to determine the factors associated with AKI among children who underwent inpatient noncardiac surgical procedures and its impact on the postoperative course. We utilized the National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Pediatric participant user files to identify a cohort of children who underwent inpatient surgery between 2012 and 2018 (n = 257,439). We randomly divided the study population into a derivation cohort of 193,082 (75%) and a validation cohort of 64,357 (25%), and constructed a multivariable logistic regression model to identify independent risk factors for AKI. We defined AKI as the occurrence of either acute renal failure or progressive renal insufficiency within the 30 days after surgery. The overall rate of postoperative AKI was 0.10% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.09-0.11). In a multivariable model, operating times longer than 140 minutes, preexisting hematologic disorder, and preoperative sepsis were the strongest independent predictors of AKI. Other independent risk factors for AKI were American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) physical status ≥III, preoperative inotropic support, gastrointestinal disease, ventilator dependency, and corticosteroid use. The 30-day mortality rate was 10.1% in children who developed AKI and 0.19% in their counterparts without AKI ( P < .001). Children who developed AKI were more likely to require an extended hospital stay (≥75th percentile of the study cohort) relative to their peers without AKI (77.4% vs 21.0%; P < .001). Independent preoperative risk factors for AKI in children undergoing inpatient noncardiac surgery were hematologic disorder, preoperative sepsis, ASA physical status ≥III, inotropic support, gastrointestinal disease, ventilator dependency, and steroid use. Children with AKI were 10 times more likely to die and nearly 3 times more likely to require an extended hospital stay, relative to their peers without AKI.

The Role of Chronic Conditions in Outcomes following Noncardiac Surgery in Children with Congenital Heart Disease

To compare outcomes in children with congenital heart disease (CHD) undergoing noncardiac surgery by presence of chronic conditions and identify associated risk factors. Retrospective analysis of 14 031 children with CHD who underwent noncardiac surgery in the 2016 Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Kid's Inpatient Database. Multivariable regression was used to assess patient and hospital factors associated with in-hospital mortality and length of stay (LOS). Overall, 94% had at least 1 chronic condition. The in-hospital mortality rate was 5.6%. Neonates with CHD only had the highest mortality (15.6%); otherwise, children with CHD and at least 1 chronic condition had higher mortality than patients with CHD only (infant 3.93%, child 1.22%, adolescent 1.04% vs 2.34%, 0%, and 0%). Neonates (OR, 15.5; 95% CI, 7.1-34.1 vs adolescent), number of chronic conditions (OR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.27-1.42), chronic conditions type (circulatory system; OR 2.46; 95% CI, 2.04-2.98), and low socioeconomic status (OR, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.05-1.77) were associated with increased mortality. The median LOS was 20days (IQR, 5-66). Those with CHD and at least 1 chronic condition had a greater LOS (21days; IQR, 5-68) than those with CHD only (9days; IQR, 3-46). Neonates (adjusted coefficient, 44.3; 95% CI, 40.3-48.3 vs adolescent), Black race (adjusted coefficient, 4.78; 95% CI, 2.27-7.3), chronic condition indicator number (adjusted coefficient, 5.17; 95% CI, 4.56-5.78), and subtype (adjusted coefficient, 23.6; 95% CI, 20.4-26.7) were associated with a prolonged LOS. Most children with CHD who undergo noncardiac surgery have at least 1 chronic condition. Age, chronic conditions type and number, low socioeconomic status, and Black race impart increased risks of in-hospital mortality and prolonged LOS. Further research is needed to evaluate the impact of specific chronic conditions and determine barriers to equitable care.

Pediatric thoracic anesthesia: airway management for lung isolation and postoperative analgesia

Thoracic anesthesia for non-cardiac surgery in children remains a niche practice with significant physiologic and anatomic constraints that distinguish it from a similar practice in adults. Specialized knowledge of one lung ventilation techniques, various regional anesthesia techniques, and multimodal approaches to post procedure analgesia, is essential to ensure safety and high-quality care. This review addresses airway management and acute postoperative pain topics in children undergoing non-cardiac thoracic surgery.

Risk associated with anesthesia for noncardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease.

Database analysis has indicated that perioperative cardiac arrest occurs with increased frequency in children with congenital heart disease. Several case series and large datasets from ACS NSQIP have identified subgroups at the highest risk. Consistently, patients with single ventricle physiology (especially prior to cavopulmonary anastomosis), severe/supra-systemic pulmonary hypertension, complex lesions, and cardiomyopathy with significantly reduced ventricular function have been shown to be at increased risk for adverse events. Based on these results, algorithms for assessing risk have been proposed. How hospitals and health care systems apply these guidelines to provide safe care for these challenging patient groups requires the application of modern quality improvement techniques. Each institution should develop a system which reflects local expertise and resources.

Incidence and Risk Factors for Perioperative Cardiovascular and Respiratory Adverse Events in Pediatric Patients With Congenital Heart Disease Undergoing Noncardiac Procedures.

While mortality and adverse perioperative events after noncardiac surgery in children with a broad range of congenital cardiac lesions have been investigated using large multiinstitutional databases, to date single-center studies addressing adverse outcomes in children with congenital heart disease (CHD) undergoing noncardiac surgery have only included small numbers of patients with significant heart disease. The primary objective of this study was to determine the incidences of perioperative cardiovascular and respiratory events in a large cohort of patients from a single institution with a broad range of congenital cardiac lesions undergoing noncardiac procedures and to determine risk factors for these events. We identified 3010 CHD patients presenting for noncardiac procedures in our institution over a 5-year period. We collected demographic information, including procedure performed, cardiac diagnosis, ventricular function as assessed by echocardiogram within 6 months of the procedure, and classification of CHD into 3 groups (minor, major, or severe CHD) based on residual lesion burden and cardiovascular functional status. Characteristics related to conduct of anesthesia care were also collected. The primary outcome variables for our analysis were the incidences of intraoperative cardiovascular and respiratory events. Univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were used to determine risk factors for these 2 outcomes. The incidence of cardiovascular events was 11.5% and of respiratory events was 4.7%. Univariate analysis and multivariable analysis demonstrated that American Society of Anesthesiologists (≥3), emergency cases, major and severe CHD, single-ventricle physiology, ventricular dysfunction, orthopedic surgery, general surgery, neurosurgery, and pulmonary procedures were associated with perioperative cardiovascular events. Respiratory events were associated with American Society of Anesthesiologists (≥4) and otolaryngology, gastrointestinal, general surgery, and maxillofacial procedures. Intraoperative cardiovascular events and respiratory events in patients with CHD were relatively common. While cardiovascular events were highly associated with cardiovascular status, respiratory events were not associated with cardiovascular status.

Increase of plasma S100B and neuron-specific enolase in children following adenotonsillectomy: a prospective clinical trial.

S100B protein and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) can be considered the markers of cerebral injury. To our knowledge the association of general anesthesia for elective non-cardiac surgery in children with these markers has not been studied before. The goalof this study was to find out whether these markers change after adenotonsillectomy with general anesthesia. The secondary goal was to determine whether different types of anesthesia, gender, age and body mass index are associated with the change of S100B and NSE after adenotonsillectomy with general anesthesia. This study was designed as a prospective clinical trial. We did a simple pre-post experiment with no control group. In 59 children (aged 6-13, ASA I-II) undergoing adenotonsillectomy and randomized to TIVA or inhalational general anesthesia, plasma S100B and NSE were measured during anesthesia before and after the surgery which lasted a median (interquartile range) of 16.5 (13.0-20.0)min. S100B and NSE assays were performed using the electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Significance of the differences was assessed by two-tailed asymptotic Wilcoxon signed rank test. Main outcome measures were differences in the levels of S100B and NSE before and after the general anesthesia and surgery. There were significant increases in S100B and NSE levels after the surgery. S100B was increased by 38% (P<0.001) and NSE was increased by 10% (P<0.001). Increase of S100B was significantly negatively associated with age (P=0.023). We have not found significant association of S100B and NSE with any other of the monitored variables. The values of neurological biomarkers S100B and NSE were significantly increased after general anesthesia for elective adenotonsillectomy in children.

Anaesthesia management for non-cardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease.

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is the most common form of congenital abnormality and occurs in over 1% of newborns. Approximately 30% of children with CHD have other extra-cardiac anomalies, which significantly increases mortality in CHD patients. It is expected that the number of CHD patients who consult non-specialized hospitals for non-cardiac surgery after palliative or corrective operations will increase because of the extraordinary progression of treatments, such as surgical procedures, interventional procedures, and intensive care medicine, as well as diagnosis. The aim of this article is to enable anaesthesiologists who are not usually engaged in the anaesthesia management of CHD patients to provide perioperative management for CHD patients safely and with confidence by having basic and advanced knowledge about CHD patients and their pathophysiological characteristics.

Post-Operative Outcomes in Children With and Without Congenital Heart Disease Undergoing Noncardiac Surgery

BackgroundSignificant advances have been made in the diagnosis and treatment of children with congenital heart disease (CHD), allowing for longer life expectancies and an increasing number who will require noncardiac surgery. ObjectivesThis study sought to compare the incidence of mortality and major adverse post-operative outcomes following noncardiac surgery in children with and without CHD. MethodsData from the 2012 pediatric database of the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program were analyzed. After propensity score matching, and stratification by severity of CHD, mortality and adverse post-operative outcomes were compared between controls and children with CHD. ResultsAmong the 51,008 children included in the database, 4,520 children with CHD underwent noncardiac surgery. After propensity score matching, we included 2,805 children with minor CHD, 1,272 with major CHD, and 417 with severe CHD. Children in each subgroup were matched and compared with controls without CHD who underwent noncardiac surgery of comparable complexity. The incidence of overall mortality was significantly higher in children with moderate (3.9%) and severe (8.2%) CHD compared with their controls (respectively, 1.7% [p < 0.001] and 1.2% [p = 0.001]). Both 30-day and overall mortality were significantly increased in children with severe CHD (odds ratio [OR]: 8.43, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.52 to 28.21; p < 0.001; OR: 7.32, 95% CI: 2.83 to 18.90; p < 0.001) compared with their matched controls. Overall mortality was also significantly increased in children with major CHD compared with their controls (OR: 2.28; 95% CI: 1.37 to 3.79; p = 0.002), whereas no difference was observed between children with minor CHD and their matched controls. ConclusionsChildren with major and severe CHD, undergoing noncardiac surgery, have an increased risk of mortality compared with children without CHD. Further studies need to identify the optimal environment for surgical procedures, develop trained multidisciplinary teams to care for children with CHD, and define management strategies for improving outcomes in this high-risk population.

Outcome of noncardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease performed outside a cardiac center

ObjectiveThe objective of this study was to review the outcome of children with congenital heart disease (CHD) undergoing noncardiac surgery requiring general anesthesia (GA) in a tertiary pediatric center between January 2010 and December 2012. Study designA retrospective case note review of children <16years of age with confirmed CHD undergoing a surgical or interventional procedure requiring GA was performed. Patients were categorized into three risk groups according to White and Peyton’s anesthetic risk classification of children with CHD undergoing noncardiac surgery [Critical Care and Pain 2012;12:17–22]. Results117 children with CHD were identified with a total of 240 procedures conducted. 36 procedures were conducted in the high-risk group, 135 in the intermediate-risk group, and 69 in the low-risk group. 40% of these were major operations such as small bowel and colonic procedures. Overall mortality rate at 7days and 30days was 0% and 0.4%, respectively, with a 1% mortality rate in minor procedures and 0% mortality rate in major procedures. There were no unexpected deaths. 17% of procedures resulted in complications. A higher rate of complications was recorded in emergency procedures. 17% of these procedures required admission to the intensive care unit, with the highest admissions rate in the high-risk group. The median duration of hospital stay for the whole cohort was 1day (range of 0–71days). ConclusionOur study shows that procedures requiring GA can be safely conducted on children from any of the three risk groups in a nonspecialist cardiac center provided that there is close liaison and careful planning between the different specialties.

The impact of general anaesthesia for elective adenotonsillectomy in children aged 6-12 years on biomarkers of cerebral injury S100B and NSE

Background and Goal of Study: S100B protein and NSE (neuron specific enolase) can be considered as early markers of cerebral injury. The impact of general anesthesia for elective noncardiac surgery in children on these markers has not been studied before. The goal was to find out whether these markers can be used to access the short term neurological outcome after general anesthesia. The secondary goal was to determine whether different types of anesthesia influence the levels of S100B and NSE. Materials and methods: Prospective study was conducted at the University Hospital on 64 children (aged 6-12, ASA I-II) undergoing elective adenotonsillectomy. The children were randomized into 2 groups:TIVA (n=32) and sevoflurane(S) (n=32). In TIVA group anesthesia was induced with propofol, fentanyl and vecuronium and maintained with continuous infusion of propofol. In S group, anesthesia was induced with fentanyl, sevoflurane and vecuronium and maintained with sevoflurane. S100B and NSE were measured before and after the surgery. S100B and NSE assays were performed using the electrochemiluminiscence immunoassay “ECLIA” used on Roche Cobas e601 immunoassay analyzer (Roche Diagnostics GmbH, Mannheim, Germany). Statistical significance of the differences was accessed by two-tailed asymptotic Wilcoxon Signed Rank test. The 95% CI for median difference was calculated by bootstrapping on 1000 samples in IBM SPSS Statistics version 21. Results and discussion: There was statistically significant increase of S100B median value after surgery with regard to preoperative values (P< 0.001). Median(interquartile range) values of S100B before and after surgery were 0.08 (0.064-0.102) and 0.1 (0.072-0.179), respectively. There was no statistically significant change of NSE median value af ter surgery regarding preoperative values (P=0.567). The prevalence of elevated S100B (≥0.105 ug/l) after the surgery was statistically significantly higher than before (McNemar test, two sided exact P=0.003). There were 12/60 children (20.0% ; 95% CI=(10.5%-29.8%)) with elevated S100 B before and 28/60 (46.7% ; 95% CI=33.3%-59.6%)) after surgery. Conclusion(s): The values of neurological biomarker S100B, but not of NSE, were significantly increased af ter general anesthesia for elective adenotonsillectomy in children, indicating possible cerebral injury.There were no differences regarding 2 types of anaesthesia, TIVA or inhalational.

G351 Outcome of non-cardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease performed outside a cardiac centre

BackgroundApproximately 30% of children with congenital heart disease (CHD) require surgery within the first year of life for extracardiac anomalies. CHD increases short- and long-term mortality risks for non-cardiovascular procedures1....

Incidence and risk factors of postoperative cognitive dysfunction after non-cardiac surgery in children and juvenile

Objective To investigate the incidence and risk factors of postoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) in children and juvenile after non-cardiac surgery.Methods 1 10 patients undergoing elective non-cardiac surgery aged between 4 y16 y,ASA Ⅰ-Ⅱ,were collected as operation group,and 50 healthy age-matched children were collected as control group.Children's childbirth,education,history of operation with anesthesia,and complication of surgical patients were recorded.Neuropsychological tests (wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence or wechsler intelligence scale for children-revised) were completed 1 d before and 3 d after surgery.POCD was calculated as a combined Z-score.Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to identify independent risk factors of POCD.Results 100 in operation group and 43 in control group completed the study.POCD was confirmed in 15/100 (15.0％) in operation group compared with 1/43 (2.3％) in control group 3 d after surgery.Logistic regression analysis revealed that the history of operation and postoperative infection were independent risk factors of POCD.Conclusions The occurrence rate of POCD after non-cardiac surgery in children and juvenile is 15.0％.Children and juvenile who had some exposure to operation before and postoperative infection are more prone to develop POCD. Key words: Children ; Juvenile; Surgical history ; Cognitive function; Risk factors

Plethysmographic Variability Index (PVI) accuracy in predicting fluid responsiveness in anesthetized children

Plethysmographic Variability Index (PVI) has been shown to accurately predict responsiveness to fluid loads in adults. The goal of this study was to evaluate PVI accuracy when predicting fluid responsiveness during noncardiac surgery in children. Children aged 2-10 years scheduled for noncardiac surgery under general anesthesia were included. PVI was assessed concomitantly with stroke volume index (SVI). A response to fluid load was defined by an SVI increase of more than 15%. A 10 ml·kg(-1) normal saline intravenous fluid challenge was administered before surgical incision and after anesthetic induction. After incision, fluid challenges were administered when SVI values decreased by more than 15% or where judged necessary by the anesthesiologist. Statistical analyses include receiving operator characteristics (ROC) analysis and the determination of gray zone method with an error tolerance of 10%. Fifty-four patients were included, 97 fluid challenges administered and 45 responses recorded. Area under the curve of ROC curves was 0.85 [0.77-0.93] and 0.8 [0.7-0.89] for baseline PVI and SVI values, respectively. Corresponding gray zone limits were [10-17%] and [22-31 ml·m(-2)], respectively. PVI values exhibited different gray zone limits for pre-incision and postincision fluid challenges, whereas SVI values were comparable. PVI value percentages in the gray zone were 34% overall and 44% for challenges performed after surgical incision. This study found both PVI and prechallenge SVI to be accurate when used to predict fluid load response during anesthetized noncardiac surgery in children. However, a third of recorded PVI values were inconclusive.

Anaesthesia for noncardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease

Children with Congenital Heart Disease (CHD) presenting for non-cardiac surgery have various physiological and functional abnormalities and thus pose great challenges to the anaesthesiologist. The principles of anaesthesia are to minimize pathophysiological changes which may upset the complex interaction between systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance. Knowledge of the specific cardiac anatomy, familiarity with the modifications of the cardiorespiratory physiology, the awareness of the potential risks of complications for each individual case are mandatory for the choice of the anaesthesia strategy for each patient. During the preoperative assessment, the risk-benefit ratio should be estimated and preoperative plan established in order to optimize the preoperative status. An anaesthesiologist must also understand pharmacology of drugs being used and should tailor anaesthetic management to the type of surgery. An interdisciplinary team approach is the cornerstone for the safe delivery of anaesthesia to this paediatric patient population. The team should comprise an anesthesiologist, a paediatric cardiologist, a surgeon, a cardio-surgeon and a neonatologist. This review is meant to explain the classification of congenital heart diseases and to equip the anaesthesiologist with the necessary information about preoperative assessment, anaesthesiology management, monitoring tools important for the safe non-cardiac surgery procedures as well as therapeutic strategies during the postoperative period.

A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th Edition.

A Practice of Anesthesia for Infants and Children, 4th Edition.

Anesthesia for non-cardiac surgery in children with congenital heart disease

It has been estimated that 0.8% of children born in the United States will be diagnosed to have some form of congenital heart disease. (CHD) Many of these children will require surgery for noncardiac conditions that are commonly encountered during childhood (e.g. inguinal hernia, dental caries, or chronic tonsillitis). Moreover, many children with CHD have other associated noncardiac (e.g. orthopedic or genitourinary) congenital anomalies that require surgical repair. Many of these procedures are performed in general hospitals by noncardiac anesthesiologists. It is therefore essential that the anesthesiologist be knowledgeable, not only of the basics of pediatric anesthesia, but also of the pathophysiology of the cardiac lesions. Knowledge of the physiological consequences of shunting or obstruction is essential to understanding the hemodynamic consequences of any congenital heart deformity. Application of these physiologic concepts permits the anesthesiologist to design a rational management plan for the child with CHD.