Non-adopted Individuals Research Articles

Securely Ever After: Attachment, Trust, and Commitment in Married U.S. Adult Adoptees

Past research suggests that adoptees face a higher risk of insecure attachment and encounter more challenges related to trust and commitment in their romantic relationships compared to nonadopted individuals. However, limited studies have used nationally representative data to systematically examine these relationships, and even fewer, if any, have explored potential gender differences in this context. Using data from a representative sample of newly married couples in the United States (n = 2,110), we examined the relationship between adoption status and multiple measures of marital security, including gender as a potential moderator. Findings from OLS regression models indicate that adult adoptees exhibited similar levels of both avoidant and anxious attachment, trust, and commitment when compared to nonadoptees. Gender differences in attachment patterns were observed among nonadopted individuals, with nonadopted women showing significantly lower levels of avoidant attachment and significantly higher levels of anxious attachment compared to nonadopted men. Interestingly, however, these gender differences were not significant among adoptees, suggesting that adoption status potentially attenuates gender-related differences in attachment. Our findings support the view that adoptees demonstrate resilience and, overall, experience comparable relationship outcomes to nonadoptees in adulthood.

Comparing Childhood Characteristics of Adopted and Non-adopted Individuals Deceased by Suicide.

ObjectiveAcross the globe more than 35,000 children a year are adopted by non-relatives, and some studies suggest that adopted individuals may be more vulnerable to developing mental disorders. To map the differences in suicide risk factors in adopted and non-adopted individuals, this study will compare the development of mental disorders as well as life events occurring before the age of 18 for both adopted and non-adopted individuals deceased by suicide.MethodsThis study included 13 adopted and 26 non-adopted individuals deceased by suicide as well as 26 non-adopted living control individuals. Cases were taken from a data bank created over the last decade by researchers of [our institution] comprising a mixture of 700 suicide cases and living control individuals aged from 14 to 84. Adopted and non-adopted individuals deceased by suicide; adopted individuals deceased by suicide and non-adopted living control individuals were each compared on Axis I and II disorders, early life events, and burdens of adversity.ResultsResults show significant differences, with a higher rate of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, mental health comorbidity and Cluster C personality disorders among adopted individuals. Furthermore, adopted individuals have higher adversity scores prior to the age of 15.ConclusionThis study underlines the fact that adoptive families need to be supported throughout adoption. Health care professionals need specialized training on this matter, and the psychological challenges adopted individuals face need to be treated at the earliest juncture.

The Effect of Adoption on Functioning and Psychosocial Well-Being in Patients With Congenital Upper-Extremity Differences

Adoption status has been investigated in numerous populations, identifying negative and positive effects on patient outcomes. This study compared parent-reported outcomes in adopted and nonadopted individuals with congenital upper-extremity (UE) anomalies to determine whether there was a measurable difference in parent perceptions of psychosocial health and functioning. The Congenital Upper Limb Differences registry identified adopted individuals from a large cohort of patients. Each adopted patient was matched to 2 nonadopted patients by sex, age, and diagnosis of UE difference using the Oberg-Manske-Tonkin classification. Parent-reported scores on functional and psychosocial subjective outcomes were compared between the 2 cohorts using the Pediatric Outcome Data Collection Instrument. Ninety-one adopted pediatric patients with congenital UE differences were identified. Sixty had complete matches for comparison, and the remaining 31 patients were not able to be matched and were excluded from the analysis. Pediatric Outcome Data Collection Instrument scores for the UE function domain were worse in the adopted cohort as judged by minimally clinically important difference. In contrast, scores for Pediatric Outcome Data Collection Instrument domains of transfer and mobility, sports and physical function, pain and comfort, and happiness did not exceed the minimally clinically important difference, although the adopted cohort scores were all relatively lower than the nonadopted cohort scores. In pediatric patients with UE differences, adoption status is seen to affect only the parent-reported domain of UE function. While differences by specific congenital diagnosis call for additional investigation, overall, these findings should be reassuring to families planning to adopt children with UE differences, and they should be supported in their expectations of UE functioning. Prognostic III.

Behavioral symptoms of eating disorders among adopted adolescents and young adults in the United States: Findings from the Add Health survey.

More adopted individuals report experiencing general psychopathology, poor parental attachment, and early childhood eating difficulties than nonadopted individuals, yet little is known about disordered eating in this population. This study sought to describe the relationship between adoption status and behavioral eating-disorder (ED) symptoms, and to examine potential correlates of ED symptoms that are unique to adopted individuals. We examined data from adolescents and young adults from Waves 1 (n adopted = 561, nonadopted = 20,184), 2 (n adopted = 211, nonadopted = 14,525), and 3 (n adopted = 416, nonadopted = 14,754) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. ED symptom items included dieting, breakfast skipping, binge eating, extreme weight loss behaviors (EWLBs; i.e., self-induced vomiting, laxative use, diet pill use) and lifetime ED diagnosis. Compared to nonadopted individuals, adopted individuals were more likely to report EWLBs at Wave 2 and binge eating and lifetime ED diagnosis at Wave 3 (ps < .05). Among adopted individuals, contact with a biological parent was associated with higher rates of binge eating and lifetime ED diagnosis at Wave 3 (ps < .05), whereas age at adoption and having ever been in foster care were not associated with rates of ED symptoms. This study provides preliminary evidence that being adopted may be a risk factor for certain behavioral symptoms of EDs. Given the benefits of early detection and treatment of ED symptoms, mental health professionals working with adopted individuals should assess for disordered eating.

Comparison of Adopted and Nonadopted Individuals Reveals Gene–Environment Interplay for Education in the UK Biobank

Polygenic scores now explain approximately 10% of the variation in educational attainment. However, they capture not only genetic propensity but also information about the family environment. This is because of passive gene–environment correlation, whereby the correlation between offspring and parent genotypes results in an association between offspring genotypes and the rearing environment. We measured passive gene–environment correlation using information on 6,311 adoptees in the UK Biobank. Adoptees’ genotypes were less correlated with their rearing environments because they did not share genes with their adoptive parents. We found that polygenic scores were twice as predictive of years of education in nonadopted individuals compared with adoptees (R2s = .074 vs. .037, p = 8.23 × 10−24). Individuals in the lowest decile of polygenic scores for education attained significantly more education if they were adopted, possibly because of educationally supportive adoptive environments. Overall, these results suggest that genetic influences on education are mediated via the home environment.

Exploring adopted adolescents’ inner world through the lens of qualitative methodology

Adolescence can be regarded as a transitional phase of profound changes with significant consequences for overall psychosocial adjustment. Adolescence may represent a more challenging period for adopted than non-adopted individuals, as they face greater risks of developing maladaptive problems. Research in this area has largely focused on factors associated with maladaptive rather than adaptive outcomes, mainly investigated through the use of quantitative methods. Given these considerations, the present explorative investigation applies a qualitative methodology to an attachment-based interview (the Friends and Family Interview; Steele & Steele, 2005), with the aim of exploring adopted adolescents’ mental representations of self and significant others by giving voice to their inner worlds. The study constitutes part of a larger research project conducted in Italy, involving 13 adopted adolescents (aged 12–17) who have been placed for international adoption for a length of almost eight years. The thematic analysis conducted on the 13 interviews revealed a total of 20 categories, from which six were considered dominant within the adolescents’ narratives: positive relationship with the adoptive family; relational conflict; recognize significant others’ supportive role; possibility of reparation; fear of rejection/abandonment; and tendency not to recognize the adoptive family. The majority of positively oriented themes indicated positive attitudes toward the adoptive family, which was regarded as a repairing relational space. The findings highlight the value of utilizing a qualitative approach and focusing on individual narratives in order to reveal the varied experiences of the adoption process as well as to provide useful tools for public adoption services and social workers dealing with post-adoption issues.

"Examining the influence of perceived stress on developmental change in memory and perceptual speed for adopted and nonadopted individuals": Correction to Ricker et al. (2018).

Reports an error in "Examining the influence of perceived stress on developmental change in memory and perceptual speed for adopted and nonadopted individuals" by Ashley A. Ricker, Robin Corley, John C. DeFries, Sally J. Wadsworth and Chandra A. Reynolds (Developmental Psychology, 2018[Jan], Vol 54[1], 138-150). In the article, the Logistic Model used for the Picture Memory Delayed (PMD), Names and Faces Immediate (NAFI), and Names and Faces Delayed (NAFD) outcomes, the values for the two parameters (r and d) were reversed in the Results section and in Table 2 as consequence of a later discovered discrepancy between the Newsom (2015a) formula notation versus the corresponding MPLUS script (Newsom 2015b). As part of this correction, the online supplemental materials have been updated in the following sections: In Table D2, the baseline unconditional Logistic model fits for PMD, NAFI, NAFD were inadvertently repeated for N=690 as reported in Table D1. In Appendix E, the Gompertz model results were revised following the best practice outlined in Grimm, Ram & Estabrook (2017). (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2017-44786-001.) The present study prospectively evaluated cumulative early life perceived stress in relation to differential change in memory and perceptual speed from middle childhood to early adulthood. We aimed to identify periods of cognitive development susceptible to the effects of perceived stress among both adopted and nonadopted individuals. The sample consisted of participants in the Colorado Adoption Project (CAP, N = 690). Structured latent growth curves were fit to 4 memory outcomes as well as 1 perceptual speed outcome, which described nonlinear change between ages 9 and 30. Both adoption status and cumulative perceived stress indices served as predictors of the latent curves. The perceived stress indices were constructed from the Brooks-Gunn Life Events Scale for Adolescents, and reflected "upsettingness" ratings associated with the occurrence of particular life events during middle childhood (ages 9 to 12) and adolescence (ages 13 to 16). For memory and perceptual speed, cumulative perceived stress did not predict differential cognitive gains. However, differences in perceptual speed trajectories between nonadopted and adopted individuals were observed, with adopted individuals showing smaller gains. Although these findings provide no evidence that emergent variability in memory and perceptual speed trajectories by age 30 are explained by cumulative perceptions of stress in childhood and adolescence, further investigations regarding potential vulnerability across the life span are warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record

Examining the influence of perceived stress on developmental change in memory and perceptual speed for adopted and nonadopted individuals.

The present study prospectively evaluated cumulative early life perceived stress in relation to differential change in memory and perceptual speed from middle childhood to early adulthood. We aimed to identify periods of cognitive development susceptible to the effects of perceived stress among both adopted and nonadopted individuals. The sample consisted of participants in the Colorado Adoption Project (CAP, N = 690). Structured latent growth curves were fit to 4 memory outcomes as well as 1 perceptual speed outcome, which described nonlinear change between ages 9 and 30. Both adoption status and cumulative perceived stress indices served as predictors of the latent curves. The perceived stress indices were constructed from the Brooks-Gunn Life Events Scale for Adolescents, and reflected "upsettingness" ratings associated with the occurrence of particular life events during middle childhood (ages 9 to 12) and adolescence (ages 13 to 16). For memory and perceptual speed, cumulative perceived stress did not predict differential cognitive gains. However, differences in perceptual speed trajectories between nonadopted and adopted individuals were observed, with adopted individuals showing smaller gains. Although these findings provide no evidence that emergent variability in memory and perceptual speed trajectories by age 30 are explained by cumulative perceptions of stress in childhood and adolescence, further investigations regarding potential vulnerability across the life span are warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record

Does Cause of Parental Death in Childhood Affect Later Risk for Depression

Children whose parents died have elevated rates of psychopathology in adulthood ( JAMA Psychiatry 2015; 72:1227), but the relationship of this to natural causes of death versus external ones (suicide, accidents, homicide) was unknown. To examine this issue, investigators used multiple Danish registries covering 862,554 nonadopted individuals born between 1973 and 1982. Rates of depression from 2006 to 2013 …

Internalizing disorder in adopted versus non-adopted adults: A NESARC based study

The objective of the study consisted of comparing lifetime prevalence rates and odds ratios of anxiety, mood, and psychotic disorders in adopted-versus-non-adopted people in a nationally representative sample. The data were drawn from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). The main outcome measure was the prevalence of lifetime internalizing psychiatric disorders in adopted (n=378) versus non-adopted (n=42,503) individuals. Adoptees and non-adoptees were compared to estimate the odds of lifetime internalizing disorders using logistic regression analyses. Adoptees had higher prevalence rates of several lifetime mood and anxiety disorders compared with non-adoptees, with a 1.61-fold increase (95% CI 1.29–2.02) in the odds of any mood disorder and a 1.49-fold increase (95% CI 1.18–1.89) in the odds of any anxiety disorder compared with non-adoptees. Regarding specific mood and anxiety disorders, adoptees had increased odds of major depressive disorder, bipolar I disorder, panic disorder without agoraphobia, specific phobia, and generalized anxiety disorder. Disorders not differing between adoptees and non-adoptees included dysthymia, bipolar II disorder, panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobia, and psychotic disorder. One adoption-specific risk factor was associated with lifetime mood disorder (i.e., Asian/Pacific Island). In conclusion, adoptees in a large sample from the general population had higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders compared to non-adoptees.

Journal Digest

Journal Digest

Pubertal Timing as a Potential Mediator of Adoption Effects on Problem Behaviors

Adopted children show more problem behaviors than nonadopted children. Given that internationally-adopted individuals show earlier puberty than non-adopted individuals, and early puberty is associated with problem behaviors in nonadopted youth, we analyzed data from domestic adoptees to determine whether problem behaviors could be explained by differences in pubertal timing. Relative to nonadopted controls (n = 153), domestically-adopted girls (n = 121) had earlier menarche, earlier sexual initiation, and more conduct disorder symptoms. Age at menarche partially mediated the relation of adoptive status to sexual initiation, but not to conduct disorder symptoms. Extending findings from international adoptees, results show that domestic adoption is also linked to earlier puberty, and suggest early puberty as one mechanism linking adoption to problematic outcomes.

Familial factors and suicide: an adoption study in a Swedish National Cohort

Parental characteristics influence the risk of offspring suicide. In this study we wanted to separate the hereditary from the environmental influence of such factors by comparing their effects in the adopted versus non-adopted. A register study was conducted in a national cohort of 2,471,496 individuals born between 1946 and 1968, including 27,600 national adoptees, followed-up for suicide during 1987-2001. Cox regression was used to calculate hazard ratios (HR) for suicide of socio-economic indicators of the childhood household and biological parents' suicide, alcohol abuse and psychiatric morbidity separately in the adopted and non-adopted. Differences in effects were tested in interaction analyses. Suicide and indicators of severe psychiatric disorder in the biological parents had similar effects on offspring suicide in the non-adopted and adopted (HR 1.5-2.3). Biological parents' alcohol abuse was a risk factor for suicide in the non-adopted group only (HR 1.8 v. 0.8, interaction effect: p=0.03). The effects of childhood household socio-economic factors on suicide were similar in adopted and non-adopted individuals, with growing up in a single parent household [HR 1.5 (95% confidence interval 1.4-1.5)] as the most important socio-economic risk factor for the non-adopted. The main familial effects of parental suicide and psychiatric morbidity on offspring suicide are not mediated by the post-natal environment or imitation, in contrast to effects of parental alcohol abuse that are primarily mediated by the post-natal environment. Social drift over generations because of psychiatric disorders does not seem likely to explain the association of socio-economic living conditions in childhood to suicide.

Overweight among international adoptees in Sweden: a population-based study.

This study investigated the prevalence of overweight [body mass index (BMI) > or = 25 kg m-2] in young adulthood among international adoptees. The prevalence of overweight among adoptees from various countries of origin was compared with that in a large group of non-adopted individuals. All 275,026 young men born in 1973-1977 and living in Sweden at 17 y of age were included. A record linkage was made between the Military Service Conscription Register and several population registers. Data on BMI at 18 y of age were obtained from military conscription examinations conducted in 1991-1995. BMI was missing for 12.7% of 2400 adoptees and 10.8% of 263,173 non-adoptees. Among 623 adoptees from Latin America 21.5% (95% confidence interval 18.3-24.7) were overweight, with a particularly high prevalence of overweight among the 266 adoptees from Chile (28.6%, 23.1-34.0). Among 502 adoptees from the Indian subcontinent 8.4% (5.9-10.8) were overweight and the prevalence of overweight was 8.8% (5.7-12.0) among 317 adoptees from India. Among 817 adoptees from the Far East 12.0% (9.8-14.2) were overweight and the prevalence of overweight was 10.9% (7.9-13.9) among 404 from South Korea. The corresponding figure was 14.1% (14.0-14.2) among the non-adopted individuals. These differences in prevalence of overweight between various groups of adoptees and between adopted and non-adopted subjects are remarkable and are probably due to diversity in genetic susceptibility to overweight.

Overweight among international adoptees in Sweden: a population‐based study

This study investigated the prevalence of overweight [body mass index (BMI) ± 25 kg m‐2] in young adulthood among international adoptees. The prevalence of overweight among adoptees from various countries of origin was compared with that in a large group of non‐adopted individuals. All 275026 young men born in 1973–1977 and living in Sweden at 17y of age were included. A record linkage was made between the Military Service Conscription Register and several population registers. Data on BMI at 18 y of age were obtained from military conscription examinations conducted in 1991–1995. BMI was missing for 12.7% of 2400 adoptees and 10.8% of 263173 non‐adoptees. Among 623 adoptees from Latin America 21.5% (95% confidence interval 18.3–24.7) were overweight, with a particularly high prevalence of overweight among the 266 adoptees from Chile (28.6%, 23.1–34.0). Among 502 adoptees from the Indian subcontinent 8.4% (5.9–10.8) were overweight and the prevalence of overweight was 8.8% (5.7–12.0) among 317 adoptees from India. Among 817 adoptees from the Far East 12.0% (9.8–14.2) were overweight and the prevalence of overweight was 10.9% (7.9–13.9) among 404 from South Korea. The corresponding figure was 14.1% (14.0–14.2) among the non‐adopted individuals. Conclusion: These differences in prevalence of overweight between various groups of adoptees and between adopted and non‐adopted subjects are remarkable and are probably due to diversity in genetic susceptibility to overweight.

Molarity not modularity: Multivariate genetic analysis of specific cognitive abilities in parents and their 16-year-old children in the colorado adoption project

Previous multivariate genetic analyses suggest substantial genetic overlap among specific cognitive abilities, that is, molarity rather than modularity. We report the first multivariate genetic analysis of specific cognitive ability data from the Colorado Adoption Project when the 16-year-old offspring were administered the same test battery as their parents. The sample included 129 adoptees, sets of adoptive parents, and biological mothers, 24 biological fathers, and 125 nonadopted individuals and their parents. The average phenotypic correlation among verbal, spatial, and perceptual speed is .48, 76% of which is due to genetic influences on average; memory shows lower correlations with these abilities (.27 on average), about half of which are due to genes. These results support the genetic molarity hypothesis: (1) genetic effects on these specific cognitive abilities largely overlap, suggesting a common genetic factor of general cognition; and (2) genetic effects are largely responsible for the phenotypic correlations among these traits.

Genotype-Environment Covariance for Multiple Phenotypes: A Multivariate Test Using Adopted and Nonadopted Children.

A bivariate generalization of the genotype-environment (GE) covariation is presented. This biometrical parameter measures the relation between genotypic influences in one attribute with environmental influences in another attribute. A multivariate procedure for detecting the presence of both univariate and bivariate GE covariation is also described, based on a test of homogeneity of observed variance-covariance matrices in adopted and nonadopted individuals. An illustrative application to measures of specific cognitive abilities in four-year-old children in the Colorado Adoption Project (CAP) is provided. The analyses provided evidence of bivariate but not univariate GE covariance among perceptual speed, memory, verbal and spatial abilities in these children. A comparison of the results from the presently described and other more elaborate model-fitting procedures is made, with a discussion of the merits and disadvantages of each approach.