Non-ulcerative Sexually Transmitted Diseases Research Articles

Assessment of sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV seroconversion in a New Orleans sexually transmitted disease clinic, 1990?1998

This investigation examined the role of ulcerative and non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in increasing susceptibility to HIV seroconversion in a large population of uninfected and predominantly heterosexual persons attending a New Orleans STD clinic. A retrospective cohort of clients with repeat HIV tests between January 1990 and April 1998 was constructed using three independent sources of information. Multivariate Cox regression was used to identify risk factors for HIV seroconversion while controlling for the effects of behavioral risk factors. A time-dependent covariate for STD allowed HIV seroconversion to be examined in relation to the timing of STD diagnosis. Having a recent syphilis or GUD diagnosis was associated with significantly increased hazards of seroconversion (among men: hazard ratio [HR], 4.2 [2.4-7.2]; among women: 5.0 [1.9-13.0]). Among men with no history of GUD or syphilis, those with recent gonorrhea within 1 year prior to seroconversion were 2.8 (1.5-5.2) times as likely to seroconvert. This study suggests that both ulcerative and non-ulcerative STD may be associated with increased risk of HIV transmission and therefore comprehensive STD control strategies may be particularly effective tools for HIV prevention.

Condiciones sociolaborales, conductas de riesgo y prevalencia de infecciones de transmisión sexual en mujeres inmigrantes que ejercen la prostitución en Madrid

ObjectiveTo describe the sociodemographic characteristics, work conditions, sexual behavior, and prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B (HBV), and hepatitis C (HCV) infection and of other sexually transmitted infections among a group of female immigrant prostitutes in Madrid. MethodsWe performed a descriptive study of a group of immigrant women who worked as prostitutes and who attended a sexually transmitted diseases (STD) clinic in Madrid in 1999 and 2000. Information was collected on sociodemographic characteristics, work conditions, use of injected drugs, and sexual practices with their clients and in their private lives. The services provided included screening for the main STDs and serological studies for HIV, HBV and HCV. ResultsA total of 579 female immigrants were analyzed. The mean age was 28.7 years. Ninety-six percent were from Latin America. None reported having consumed injected drugs. They began to work as prostitutes at a mean age of 27.4 years and 93.3% of them began in Spain. In the previous month, 98% had always used condoms for vaginal and anal penetrations with their clients and 17.6% had used them in their private sexual relations. Thirty percent reported condom breakage during intercourse. The prevalence of HIV and HCV infection was 0.2 and 0.9%, respectively; 8.1% showed HIV anticore antibodies and 0.5% showed surface antigens. An ulcerative STD was diagnosed in 2.1% and a non-ulcerative STD was diagnosed in 16%. ConclusionsCondoms are generally used with clients although the frequency of breakage is high. Condom use in prostitutes’ personal lives is dramatically lower. The prevalence of markers for HIV, HBV and HCV is low and the frequency of STD is moderate.

From epidemiological synergy to public health policy and practice: the contribution of other sexually transmitted diseases to sexual transmission of HIV infection.

OBJECTIVES: To review the scientific data on the role of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in sexual transmission of HIV infection and discuss the implications of these findings for HIV and...

Increased interleukin-10 in the the endocervical secretions of women with non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases: a mechanism for enhanced HIV-1 transmission?

Although non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and bacterial vaginosis are implicated as cofactors in heterosexual HIV-1 transmission, the mechanisms have not been defined. Recent in vitro data suggest that interleukin (IL)-10 may increase susceptibility of macrophages to HIV-1 infection. Therefore, we performed this study to assess whether non-ulcerative STD are associated with detection of IL-10 in the female genital tract. Women with clinical pelvic inflammatory disease with or without cervicovaginal discharge were recruited from an STD clinic in Nairobi, Kenya. Endocervical and endometrial specimens were obtained for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis DNA detection, Trichonomas vaginalis culture, and CD4 and CD8 T-cell enumeration. Bacterial vaginosis was diagnosed by Gram stain. IL-10 was detected in endocervical specimens using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Blood was obtained for HIV-1 serology. One hundred and seventy-two women were studied. N. gonorrhoeae, C. trachomatis, bacterial vaginosis, and T. vaginalis were detected in 38 (21%), 17 (9%), 71 (43%), and 22 (12%) women, respectively. Cervical IL-10 was detected more often in women with N. gonorrhoeae [adjusted odds ratio (AOR), 3.4; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.4-8.4], C. trachomatis (AOR, 4.4; 95% CI, 1.2-15.6), and bacterial vaginosis (AOR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.4-6.9) than in women without these infections. The association of non-ulcerative STD and bacterial vaginosis with increased frequency of IL-10 detection in endocervical secretions suggests a potential mechanism through which these infections may alter susceptibility to HIV-1 infection in women.

HIV infection and disturbances of vaginal flora during pregnancy.

Disturbances of vaginal flora are common among women of reproductive age. In areas of sub-Saharan Africa where the prevalence of HIV is high, the frequency of bacterial vaginosis (BV) is also high. In this study, we assessed the association of BV and other disturbances of vaginal flora with prevalent HIV infection in two cross-sectional studies among pregnant women in urban Malawi. The prevalence of HIV-1 was 23% in 1990 and 30% in 1993. Overall, 30% of the women had BV, 59% had mild or moderate disturbance of vaginal flora, and only 11% had normal vaginal flora. Increasing prevalence of HIV was significantly associated with increasing severity of disturbance of vaginal flora (p < .00001, chi2 trend test). This trend of increased prevalence persisted after controlling for concurrent sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), sexual activity, and socioeconomic factors. After multivariate adjustment for potential confounders, the odds ratio for the association of BV with prevalent HIV infection was 3.0 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.4-3.8), that of moderate vaginal disturbance with HIV infection was 2.2 (95% CI, 1.7-2.8), and that of mild vaginal disturbance with HIV infection was 1.6 (95% CI, 1.3-2.1). Among women with BV, HIV infection was higher among younger women than older, implying more recent infection. Although these studies were cross-sectional, our data suggest that BV could be associated with increased susceptibility to HIV infection.

Increase in endocervical CD4 lymphocytes among women with nonulcerative sexually transmitted diseases.

To assess associations of nonulcerative sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-susceptible leukocytes on female genital mucosa, cervicovaginal specimens from 32 HIV-negative STD clinic patients with gonorrhea, chlamydial infection, or trichomoniasis were compared with specimens from 32 clinic patients without these infections. Twenty-eight patients had single infections (15 gonorrhea, 10 chlamydial infection, 3 trichomoniasis), and 4 had dual infections. A saline vaginal wash and saline suspensions of vaginal wall scrapings, ectocervical scrapings, and endocervical brushings were analyzed by flow cytometry. Specimens from the endocervix had the highest proportions of lymphocytes, monocytes, and Langerhans' cells. The median number of endocervical CD4 lymphocytes/10,000 cells was greater among patients with STDs than among those without (476 vs. 245; P < .001). These data suggest that the endocervix may have a particularly important role in heterosexual HIV transmission and that nonulcerative STDs may facilitate HIV transmission by increasing the presence of CD4 lymphocytes at this site.

Proportion of HIV infections attributable to other sexually transmitted diseases in a rural Ugandan population: simulation model estimates.

Unprotected heterosexual contact in the presence of other sexually transmitted diseases (STD) enhances the probability of HIV transmission. The objective of this study was to estimate the proportion of HIV infections attributable to STD in rural Uganda. Simulation modelling scenarios of the transmission dynamics of HIV infection and of ulcerative and non-ulcerative STD were employed to address this objective, drawing on data from a specific rural population cohort of 10,000 in south-west Uganda. In simulations of the initial 10-year period of the HIV epidemic (1980-1990), over 90% of HIV infections were attributed to STD. Even given conservative assumptions about the prevalence of STD and about their enhancing effects on HIV transmission, STD played a critical role in the rapid and extensive spread of HIV infection. The role of STD decreased with progression of the HIV epidemic. In developing countries, control of the spread of HIV infection may benefit substantially from successful STD intervention programmes, and particularly in areas where HIV infection is not already well established.

Prevalence of genital infections in medical inpatients in Blantyre, Malawi

The limited information on the prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in Malawi suggests that they are common. In studies in Lilongwe in 1989 and Blantyre in 1990, the prevalence of STDs was 4.4% in unselected outpatients and 42% in antenatal clinic patients respectively. Malawi is one of the countries worst affected by the HIV pandemic, with an estimated national HIV seroprevalence of 10% in the age group over 15 years and of 32% in pregnant women who attended antenatal clinics in Blantyre in 1993. Heterosexual intercourse is the main mode of HIV transmission in sub-Saharan Africa, accounting for up to 80% of cases of HIV infection. Concomitant genital ulcer disease facilitates sexual transmission of HIV. Non-ulcerative STDs may also play a role in facilitating sexual transmission of HIV but the evidence is less clear. The identification and treatment of people with STDs therefore presents an opportunity for decreasing HIV transmission. Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital (QECH) is the District Hospital for Blantyre, Malawi's largest city (about 500,000 population) and the tertiary referral hospital for Malawi's Southern Region. There are two general medical wards, one male and one female, to which about 11,000 patients were admitted in 1993. Bed occupancy can run at up to 150-200% and resources are limited. The top ten causes of admission are malaria, gastroenteritis, anaemia, pneumonia, dysentery, tuberculosis, AIDS, meningitis, hypertension and ascites. The leading causes of death are AIDS and tuberculosis.

Increasing HIV-1 seroprevalence associated with genital ulcer disease, New York City, 1990-1992

To measure HIV seroprevalence trends associated with sexually transmitted diseases (STD) causing ulcerative lesions [genital ulcer disease (GUD)], such as syphilis, chancroid and genital herpes, in New York City between 1990 and 1992. Unlinked HIV-1 serosurvey using remnant serum drawn originally for routine syphilis screening. Consecutive sample of patients presenting to New York City Department of Health STD clinics for STD examination (n = 41,678). Serologic evidence of antibody to HIV-1. Although overall HIV seroprevalence and GUD incidence declined between 1990 and 1992, seroprevalence in patients with GUD increased from 10 to 16%. In contrast, seroprevalence in patients with non-ulcerative STD decreased. The most dramatic changes in seroprevalence associated with GUD occurred in patients using crack cocaine and injecting drugs. Despite declining HIV seroprevalence and GUD incidence, the association between GUD and HIV infection has strengthened over time in New York City STD clinics. Longitudinal incidence studies are needed to elucidate the biological, behavioral and temporal associations between GUD and HIV. Timely diagnosis and treatment of acute STD and more intensive risk reduction strategies at the clinics and associated testing sites, with a particular focus on GUD patients, are indicated.

Increasing HIV-1 seroprevalence associated with genital ulcer disease, New York City, 1990-1992

Objective: To measure HIV seroprevalence trends associated with sexually transmitted diseases (STD) causing ulcerative lesions [genital ulcer disease (GUD)], such as syphilis, chancroid and genital herpes, in New York City between 1990 and 1992. Design: Unlinked HIV-1 serosurvey using remnant serum drawn originally for routine syphilis screening. Setting and patients: Consecutive sample of patients presenting to New York City Department of Health STD clinics for STD examination (n = 41 678). Main outcome measure: Serologic evidence of antibody to HIV-1. Results: Although overall HIV seroprevalence and GUD incidence declined between 1990 and 1992, seroprevalence in patients with GUD increased from 10 to 16%. In contrast, seroprevalence in patients with non-ulcerative STD decreased. The most dramatic changes in seroprevalence associated with GUD occurred in patients using crack cocaine and injecting drugs. Conclusions: Despite declining HIV seroprevalence and GUD incidence, the association between GUD and HIV infection has strengthened over time in New York City STD clinics. Longitudinal incidence studies are needed to elucidate the biological, behavioral and temporal associations between GUD and HIV. Timely diagnosis and treatment of acute STD and more intensive risk reduction strategies at the clinics and associated testing sites, with a particular focus on GUD patients, are indicated.

性感染症としての尿道炎 : 1)淋菌感染症 : STD(AIDSを含む)

In the heterosexual epidemic of HIV in northern Thailand sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) play a significant role. Having contracted an STD in the previous 6 months is a statistically significant risk for seroconversion to HIV positivity in this population. Nonulcerative STDs such as gonorrhea and nongonococcal urethritis (NGU) as well as ulcerative STDs such as syphilis and chancroid seem to increase male susceptibility to HIV infection. Significant behavioral risk factors for HIV infection include multiple sexual partners and frequent sexual encounters with commercial sex workers (CSWs). In Japan gonorrhea has been under surveillance along with chlamydia since 1988 and has decreased to one-fifth of the peak level of 1984 particularly as a result of the AIDS campaign. However gonococcal urethritis (GU) transmitted via the female pharynx increased from 6.1% in 1984 to 40.0% in 1993. Gen-Probe has been effective for gonococcal detection. Unlike GU chlamydia is on the rise in Japan and the main source of infection is now in the general female population rather than the CSW population. The PCR method has proven more effective for chlamydia detection than the EIA or DNA probe method. SPFX and CAM have been effective against chlamydia. AZM has been very promising. Human papillomavirus (HPV) particularly HPV type 16 seems to be responsible for the development of cancer of the penis uterine cervix and even the prostate. Genital herpes simplex is usually caused by HSV-2 but HIV-1 can cause acute herpes which is on the rise in Japan due to changes in peoples sexual habits and to the replacement of condoms with oral contraceptives.

Non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases as risk factors for HIV-1 transmission in women

The heterosexual spread of HIV-1 is occurring at different rates in different parts of the world. The transmission probability of HIV-1 per sexual contact is low, but may be greatly enhanced by several cofactors. Sexually transmitted diseases (STD), especially genital ulcers, may be such factors. So far, epidemiological evidence that other STD facilitate HIV-1 transmission is weak. The objective of this study was to determine whether treatable STD enhanced sexual transmission of HIV-1 in a cohort of female prostitutes in Kinshasa, Zaire. We conducted a nested case-control study of 431 initially HIV-1-negative women followed prospectively for a mean duration of 2 years (with monthly STD check-ups and 3-monthly HIV-1 serology). Cases (seroconverters, n = 68) were compared with controls (women who remained HIV-1-negative, n = 126) for incidence of STD and sexual exposure during the presumed period of HIV-1 acquisition. The annual incidence of HIV-1 in this cohort was 9.8%. Seroconverters were younger than HIV-1-negative women (mean age, 24.6 versus 26.8 years; P = 0.04). During the period of HIV-1 acquisition, cases had a much higher incidence of gonorrhoea, chlamydial infection and trichomoniasis, and engaged in unprotected sex with clients and partners more frequently than controls. After controlling for sexual exposure by multivariate analysis, adjusted odds ratios for seroconversion were 4.8 [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.4-9.8] for gonorrhoea, 3.6 (95% CI, 1.4-9.1) for chlamydial infection and 1.9 (95% CI, 0.9-4.1) for trichomoniasis. Genital ulcers were more frequent in cases than controls, but much less common than other STD. Non-ulcerative STD were risk factors for sexual transmission of HIV-1 in women, after controlling for sexual exposure. Because of their high prevalence in some populations, non-ulcerative STD may represent a considerable population-attributable risk in the transmission of HIV-1 worldwide. The identification of treatable STD as risk factors for HIV-1 transmission offers an important additional strategy for the prevention of HIV/AIDS.

Genital Ulcers and Male Circumcision as Risk Factors for Acquiring HIV-1 in Zambia

Although genital ulcers provide an ideal portal of entry for HIV during heterosexual intercourse non-ulcerative sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) also recruit acute and chronic inflammatory cells to the lower genital tract including HIV-infected lymphocytes and macrophages that can contaminate the skin and mucous membranes of the genital tract. Our finding that genital ulcers are of no greater risk for HIV than are non-ulcerative STDs calls for further study of the dynamics of heterosexual transmission of HIV in prostitute and nonprostitute populations in Africa. (excerpt)

Genital ulcers, other sexually transmitted diseases, and the sexual transmission of HIV.

There is increasing evidence that genital ulceration, including syphilis, chancroid, and herpes simplex type 2, increases susceptibility to HIV infection. It may be that the HIV penetrates more easily through ulcerated membranes or that the lymphocytes associated with the inflammatory response present target cells for HIV infection. There is also evidence that HIV-infected women with genital ulcers are themselves more infective due to shedding of the virus in the genital tract. Nonulcerative sexually-transmitted diseases have also been associated as cofactors of HIV infection. Programs for the control of sexually transmitted diseases should be strengthened and should focus on eliminating chancroid, which is easily treated with antibiotics. Patients with genital ulcer disease should receive counseling, so that they will know that untreated genital ulcers increase the risk of HIV infection.