Nonrural School Research Articles

Cyberbullying: Risk Factors for Victimization in Rural Schools and the Influence of School Climate.

This study evaluated the prevalence rates and risk factors for cyberbullying victimization and perpetration among 7th-12th grade students (n = 3,396) enrolled in 22 public school districts across Southern Illinois. Risk factors included victimization by traditional bullying, gender identity, cell phone use, and social media usage. We also examined perceptions of school climate and safety. We observed that traditional bullying victimization, gender identity, and social media usage predicted cyberbullying victimization. Similarly, perceptions of school climate and safety were significantly and positively correlated with cyberbullying victimization. In turn, perceptions of school climate and safety predicted cyberbullying perpetration. Rurality was a factor uniquely related to perpetration. Specifically, students from non-rural schools reported higher levels of cyberbullying perpetration than did students from rural schools. Our results underscore the need for intervention and prevention programs to focus on all forms of bullying and parental monitoring of social media accounts.

A multi-state, student-level analysis of the effects of the four-day school week on student achievement and growth

Four-day school weeks are becoming increasingly common in the U.S., but prior research is ambiguous regarding their impacts on achievement. Using a difference-in-differences approach, we conduct the most representative student-level analysis to date of the effects of four-day weeks on student achievement and within-year growth using NWEA MAP Growth data. We estimate significant negative effects of the schedule on spring reading achievement (-0.07 SD) and fall-to-spring gains in math (-0.05 SD) and reading (-0.06 SD). The negative effects of the schedule are disproportionately driven by adoptions in non-rural schools and are larger for female students. For policymakers and practitioners, this study provides evidence supporting concerns about four-day school weeks’ effects on student achievement and growth, particularly in non-rural areas.

Exploring Teacher Leadership’s Effect on Teacher Burnout: Does School Rurality Make a Difference?

In literature, both teacher leadership and teacher burnout have been heavily studied. However, it is unknown to what extent teacher leadership makes a difference in teacher burnout, and whether school rurality makes a difference in between. This study fills the research gaps by conceptualising teacher leadership from both instructional and non-instructional dimensions and applying a quantitative method to large-scale national data. Findings revealed that (a) rural teachers presented higher levels of teacher leadership practices; (b) rural and non-rural teachers presented the same levels of burnout; and (c) both instructional and non-instructional dimensions of teacher leadership practices helped reduce teacher burnout in general, but rurality moderated the two effects differently, where instructional teacher leadership had a larger effect in non-rural schools while non-instructional teacher leadership presented a larger effect in rural schools. Discussion and recommendations for further research of teacher leadership and teacher burnout in rural schools are presented.

There’s No Place Like Us: Beyond Fidelity of Implementation in Rural Contexts

Rural schools experience difficulty in filling teaching positions at higher rates than non-rural schools. Recruiting and retaining teachers are critical in these districts; however, because the term “rural” is variable, a one-size-fits-all response is not possible. Rural communities tend to be geographically remote, have a low critical mass of students with distinct disabilities, and have relatively few resources to provide differential support for students. In this context, special educators may find themselves in circumstances where they operate as general specialists who are responsible for addressing a broad range of student needs without the support of other related service providers (e.g., school psychologists, curriculum specialists, school counselors, speech and language pathologists). Garwood’s article provides a catalyst to consider ecological system factors that affect burnout, attrition, and, as a consequence, instruction, particularly for students with disabilities. In this response, we view this issue from a perspective of rural schools, where the system contexts are varied and directly impact teacher-level variables, such as the ability to implement evidence-based practices (EBPs) with fidelity. Taking a developmental systems approach, we describe what makes rural settings unique and how these characteristics interact with the critical features of EBPs, as well as suggest how preparation and induction programs might better prepare and sustain teachers to adapt instruction to these rural contexts. We conclude with implications for practice and policy.

The Effects of Delivering Personalized Course Recommendations at Scale on Advanced Placement Participation and Performance

Abstract Gaps in advanced high school coursework by socioeconomic status and geography persist in the United States, even among students with the ability and access to succeed in them. Lack of information on course availability and inaccurate self-perceptions may contribute to these inequities. We report on a large-scale experiment designed to increase Advanced Placement (AP) participation among underrepresented minority students and students attending rural high schools. Students and parents assigned to treatment received personalized outreach via multiple communication channels about AP classes offered at their high school in which they demonstrated potential to succeed. Outreach increased the probability of AP Exam participation in subjects in which students demonstrated potential to succeed by 1.1 percentage points, a 2.5 percent increase over the control group rate. This, in turn, increased the probability that students scored 3 or higher on those AP Exams by 0.5 percentage point, a 1.4 percent increase over the control group rate. Intervention effects were concentrated among underrepresented minority students attending nonrural schools and relatively less academically prepared students. The findings indicate that personalized course recommendations can increase equity in advanced high school course participation; however, designing outreach campaigns at scale that engage students is a crucial challenge to their efficacy.

“Tell them local control is important”: A case study of democratic, community-centered school boards

Democratically elected school boards in the United States play a crucial role in school governance because they enable community voice in educational practices and programs. Research on locally controlled boards finds they can be undemocratic and unproductive. However, little research has been conducted in rural or small towns, where local control persists through formal and informal means. This qualitative case study examines two rural, locally controlled school boards to understand how they engage in community-centered democratic governance, and the extent that they influence the technical core of schooling. The process of developing and approving school district budgets is used as illustrative examples of the enactment of local control. The findings from this study explain how small, locally controlled school boards employ elements of democratic governance, and that their community governance influences the technical core of schooling. The study provides a rural counter-narrative to previous research on local control, demonstrating that local control enacted by school boards can be an effective democratic practice that shapes teaching and learning in public schools. The article concludes with recommended practices non-rural school boards and communities can employ to expand democratic participation in their schools, as well as future directions for research.

Staffing for School Turnaround in Rural Settings

ABSTRACT Recruiting and retaining effective teachers is critical to school turnaround. However, research on how improving educator quality in low-performing schools contributes to school improvement is largely situated in urban settings. This study examines staffing practices through a descriptive analysis of the first cohort of Comprehensive Support and Improvement (CSI) schools in North Carolina. In the 94 schools slated for turnaround, ineffective teachers in rural schools were less likely to turn over than in non-rural schools. Instead of filling vacancies with more effective teachers than they lost, rural schools tended to assign their more effective teachers to tested grades and subjects.

A multi-level analysis of upper elementary students’ performance on the STAAR reading exam: comparing growth trajectories of rural and non-rural school districts

ABSTRACT We examined student reading achievement in rural and non-rural school districts in Texas. Our research questions probed the improvement in student performance over time, differences in the number of students achieving at different performance levels, and the impact of district-level characteristics on reading achievement. Through quantitative analyses of district-level aggregated data, we compared student growth trajectories over three years. We employed growth hierarchical linear modelling to explore to what extent time, school location, and their interaction impacted student outcomes, as measured by the state reading test. We found that both rural and non-rural students improved in all three performance levels. Location differences were only found in the higher performance levels. We further added 11 district-level factors that might influence student reading performance into the model. The percentages of at-risk and economically disadvantaged students, student mobility rate, and teacher turnover rate had a statistically significant negative impact for all reading levels.

The Forgotten 20%: Achievement and Growth in Rural Schools Across the Nation

Leveraging achievement data measured in the fall and spring of kindergarten through eighth grade for 840,000 students attending 8,800 public schools, we report novel evidence on how achievement and growth patterns differ between rural and nonrural schools. Rural students start kindergarten slightly ahead of nonrural students but fall behind by middle school. The divergence is driven by larger summer losses for rural students. In both rural and nonrural schools, we provide additional evidence that Black–White achievement gaps widen during the school year. These findings highlight the importance of seasonal learning patterns in interpreting rural school performance.

School-based HealthyMe Curricula on Health Behaviors and Weight

Objective: Healthy dietary habits, physical activity, and positive mental health help prevent or manage excess weight among adolescents. HealthyMe curriculum modules are designed to improve those health behaviors among middle and high school students. Methods: The HealthyMe curriculum was implemented through health classes and health-promoting activities. We evaluated the changes in weight and key health behaviors from 23 schools across 8 states in the 2017-2018 academic year. We analyzed pre-post comparisons adjusting for lesson attendance, race/ethnicity, and age, and for clustering effects of schools. We also compared percentages of improved behaviors between sexes and between rural and non-rural schools. Results: Data were available from 1463 students (44% boys, age = 15.6 (1.3) years). Body mass index (BMI) metrics, in general, were significantly improved among students who were overweight or obese. Significant positive health behavior changes reported by both boys and girls were increasing breakfast and decreasing sugary beverage consumption. Girls significantly increased fruit and vegetable intakes and physical activities; boys significantly decreased dinner at home and physical activities. Students in rural schools tended to have a smaller number of significant changes and improved behaviors. Conclusions: The HealthyMe curriculum improved weight among students, who were overweight or obese, even though it focuses on health behaviors rather than directly addressing weight issues. The positive health behavior changes in conjunction with weight improvements may reflect synergy between the health promotion teaching and school policies.

The Effects of Delivering Personalized Course Recommendations at Scale on AP Exam Participation and Performance

Gaps in advanced high school coursework by socioeconomic status and geography continue to persist in the United States, even among students who have the ability and access to succeed in them. Lack of information on course availability and inaccurate self-perceptions may contribute to the persistence of these inequities. We report on a low-cost, large scale experiment designed to increase Advanced Placement (AP) participation among two groups of students with historically low participation rates: underrepresented minority students and students attending rural high schools. Students and parents assigned to treatment received personalized outreach via multiple communication channels about APs offered at their high school in which they demonstrated potential to succeed. Outreach increased the probability of AP Exam participation in subjects in which students demonstrated potential to succeed by 1.1 percentage points, a 2.5 percent increase over the control group participation rate. This, in turn, increased the probability that students scored 3 or higher on those AP Exams by 0.5 percentage points, a 1.4 percent increase over the control group rate. Intervention effects were concentrated among underrepresented minority students attending non-rural schools and relatively less academically prepared students. These findings indicate that personalized course recommendations can increase equity in advanced high school course participation, although the design of outreach campaigns at scale that engage students deeply is a crucial challenge to their efficacy.

Time-Based Changes In Physical Education Offerings In Response To A Legislative Mandate

Physical education (PE) remains one of the most effective strategies for promoting school-based physical activity. Fewer than 10 states mandate public schools meet current public health recommendations for PE. Moreover, it remains unknown how implementing such mandates affects PE offerings. In 2007, Oregon passed legislation requiring elementary schools to provide 150+ min/week of PE by fall of 2017. No funding was offered to support this mandate. PURPOSE: To evaluate time-based changes in PE offerings among Oregon public elementary schools for 8 years (2009-10 to 2016-17) preceding required compliance to the legislative mandate requiring 150+ min/week of PE. METHODS: A total of 752 Oregon public elementary schools reported yearly minutes of PE offered and the total number of school weeks in session per year. Mean PE min/week were calculated by dividing yearly PE minutes by weeks in session. Additional publicly available explanatory variables including rurality (rural vs. non-rural county designations) and school schedule (four vs. five-day school week) were collected. A linear-mixed effects model was fit to evaluate time based-changes in PE with min/week of PE as the dependent variable, school year, rurality, and school schedule as fixed effects, and school as a random effect. RESULTS: Although significant year-to-year variability in PE minutes was observed (p < 0.001), between 2009-10 to 2014-15 mean PE minutes remained relatively stable at 74 to 77 min/week before experiencing two larger year-to-year increases in 2015-16 (+3.9 min/week from 2014-15 to 80.8 ± 1.8 min/week) and 2016-17 (+4.0 min/week from 2015-16 to 84.8 ± 1.9 min/week). Schools located in rural counties were offered significantly more PE than non-rural schools (80.7 ± 1.7 vs. 74.6 ± 1.8 min/week, respectively, p < 0.001). No significant difference in mean PE min/week was observed between four vs. five-day school week formats (77.7 ± 2.3 vs. 77.5 ± 1.3 min/week, respectively, p = 0.924). CONCLUSION: Despite having a 10-year lead-in period to increase PE time to 150+ min/week, Oregon elementary schools were only offering about half the required PE min/week (56.7%) in the year prior to mandatory compliance. Unfunded mandates requiring large increases in PE offerings may not effectively increase PE min/week to the required level.

Texas Rural vs. Nonrural School District Student Growth Trajectories on a High-Stakes Science Exam: A Multilevel Approach

This study compares the science achievement growth trajectories of fifth-grade students in rural and nonrural school districts in Texas. Using a growth hierarchical linear model, we explored the effects of time, school location (rural vs. nonrural), and their interaction on students’ science performance as measured by the high-stakes State of Texas Assessment of Academic Readiness (STAAR) science test over five academic years. We found that rural school students lagged in science at the initial stage when STAAR was first administered in the 2011–2012 school year. With time, the gap between rural and nonrural district students’ science performance persisted. We further added eight district-level factors that might influence students’ academic performance into the model and found that three variables (i.e., student mobility rate, percentage of students identified ELs, and teacher turnover rate) constantly influenced students’ science scores. The implications for teaching pedagogy and research are discussed regarding science education in Texas rural districts.

Beyond spending levels: Revenue uncertainty and the performance of local governments

Revenue uncertainty is a common concern among public administrators, but little research examines its effects on service delivery. Using a novel empirical strategy to capture how revenues deviate from administrators’ expectations, we estimate the impact of revenue uncertainty on Ohio public school districts’ educational effectiveness. We find that errors in districts’ revenue forecasts can have a significant negative impact on student achievement, beyond what one would expect based on changes in spending levels. In particular, a one percentage point increase in error involving revenue shortfalls can lead to declines in student achievement growth of up to 0.02 standard deviations during the following school year, which equates to about 8 days’ worth of learning. These effects are concentrated in large, non-rural school districts with relatively low fund balances.

Estimating adequate funding to meet performance standards for junior high school students: Adequate funding comparisons between rural and non-rural schools in Taiwan

Estimating adequate funding to meet performance standards for junior high school students: Adequate funding comparisons between rural and non-rural schools in Taiwan

Contemporary Federal Education Policy and Rural Schools: A Critical Policy Analysis

This article focuses on contemporary federal education policy as it manifests in rural schools. Rural schools differ appreciably from nonrural schools in terms of organizational systems, structures, and culture. Federal policies that drive school improvement initiatives (e.g., those regulating the functioning of schools and those managing the distribution of resources to schools) are often not attentive to such differences, adopting one-size-fits-all approaches resulting in policy contexts that are ineffective and even harmful to rural schools and communities. The few national policies explicitly designed for rural schools, moreover, generally fail to engage the state and regional variations that characterize rural schools, resulting in seemingly unpredictable results that often work against the announced policy goals. This article considers three major educational policies of the post–No Child Left Behind era: the Race to the Top grant program, the School Improvement Grant (SIG) program, and the Rural Education Achievement Program (REAP). Along with describing these programs and analyzing the impact of their implementation in rural settings, the article also offers perspectives on how to level the playing field for rural schools and communities.

Building Special Education Teacher Capacity in Rural Schools: Impact of a Grow Your Own Program

Rural education has a legacy of unique challenges, with highest priority needs in the South. Chief among these challenges are the conditions of poverty associated with many rural districts and the education of students with disabilities. Compared with their urban and suburban counterparts, rural teachers experience higher rates of turnover, and rural schools find it more difficult to recruit teachers from the start. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which a grow your own (GYO) program equitably increased special education teacher capacity in one Southern state's rural and non-rural school districts. The sample included 638 participants who completed special education teacher licensure programs over the 8-year period, 2003-2011. Statistical analysis revealed a significant difference in one demographic variable, licensure area. The rural group had disproportionately fewer program completers in emotional disabilities and more in multi-categorical. Additional analysis showed a significantly higher percentage of program completers in the rural group. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.

Wayne School of Engineering: Case Study of a Rural Inclusive STEM‐Focused High School

Rural schools face challenges that are often different than nonrural schools. Resource constraints are particularly acute in rural schools, and they struggle to offer advanced courses and extracurricular programs. The purpose of this paper is to present a descriptive, instrumental case study of an inclusive rural science, technology, engineering, and mathematics school that has successfully dealt with challenges and offers an innovative and productive learning environment, despite limited resources. For this study, a variety of on‐site and off‐site data collection techniques were used such as focus groups, classroom observation protocols, and surveys. Wayne School of Engineering (WSE) overcomes resource barriers by matching their schedule to the local community college, upgrading the rigor of their high school classes and facilitating student transition to college. WSE also requires extracurricular research projects that help students see the relevance of their in class learning, build 21st century skills, and connect to partners outside of the school. Faced with limited budgetary, technological, and logistical resources, WSE administrators, teachers, and students work collectively to overcome these barriers and provide high‐quality education by finding ways to blur the lines of traditional secondary schools.

An Examination of Capital Outlay Funding Mechanisms in Oklahoma

This study was designed to explore fiscal interrelationships that underlay capital outlay funding, including the differences between rural and non-rural school districts. The study additionally focused on the relationships between various capital outlay funding components (capital outlay expenditures per pupil, net assessed valuation per pupil, bond issue passage rates, pupil socioeconomic status, and rurality) and student achievement. The analysis determined the extent to which these specific factors affected spending by including two levels of rurality as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau along with SES, current expenditures, local wealth, and local support as variables. Rural and non-rural were found to be significantly different in net assessed valuation and capital outlay expenditure but not bond passage rate. Socioeconomic status was significantly related to and a predictor of capital outlay expenditures. Capital outlay expenditure, net assessed valuation, nor rurality was significantly related to student achievement. The study identified how these capital outlay funding mechanisms in Oklahoma are related to one another and the effect they have as a group and individually on the ability of local educational leaders to address facility needs.

Impact of No Child Left Behind's Highly Qualified Requirements on Both Rural and Non-Rural Schools in Ohio

Recruiting and retaining “highly qualified” special education teachers (HQT) is of paramount concern for school districts across the country, particularly in a field with persistent teacher shortages (Boe &amp; Cook, 2006). However, the effects of this mandate on special education, and rural special education in particular, remain unknown (McLeskey &amp; Billingsley, 2008). The goals of this project were to determine how the HQT mandate was affecting rural and non-rural schools and how university and school personnel are attempting to meet the HQT requirement in the state of Ohio. The project involved surveying representatives from groups of key stakeholders in Ohio. Major facets of the survey included awareness, measures taken to ensure HQT status, and overall impact. Results suggested that few major efforts are being undertaken and that few major effects are expected. Recommendations include the need for better flow of communication and clarification of the roles of various systems in ensuring compliance.