Non-revenue Water Reduction Research Articles

Cost-effective non-revenue water reduction: analysis through pilot activities in Kigali City, Rwanda

ABSTRACT Non-revenue water (NRW) is a major problem for water utilities, and its reduction has become an important challenge in ensuring a sustainable water supply. However, a lack of clarity regarding the cost–benefit analysis of investment in pilot activities to reduce NRW may hinder further investment in such projects. Thus, we attempted to identify strategies for effective NRW reduction and establish a method for estimating their cost-effectiveness. To this end, a project to strengthen the NRW management capacity and build a sustainable NRW reduction system was implemented in Kigali City, Rwanda, between 2016 and 2021. The project included four objectives: enhancement of the planning capacity for NRW reduction; acquisition of basic knowledge, skills, and techniques for NRW control; enhancement of staff capacity to execute NRW reduction measures; and establishment of a system to accurately measure NRW ratios. The project helped to formulate a 5-year plan for NRW reduction and 596 employees of Kigali City were trained for the same. The NRW ratios were reduced by 10 and 12% in the two pilot areas of the city. Cost–benefit analysis revealed the effectiveness of the investment in NRW reduction activities over time.

The role of Water Operator Partnership in accelerating adoption of new working process for non-revenue water reduction: a case study – Waterworx WOP between Perumda Air Minum Tirta Moedal and VEI

ABSTRACT This paper presents the approach, results, and contributing factors to success of a Non-Revenue Water (NRW) reduction intervention in a Water Operator Partnership (WOP) between Perumda Air Minum Tirta Moedal Kota Semarang (PDAM Semarang) and VEI Dutch Water Operators (VEI). This paper makes a case for the prioritisation of small but smart operational investment to improve the water use efficiency (SDG 6.4) in infrastructure development programmes which typically focus on expanding network coverage (SDG 6.1) alone. The successful intervention is hinged on VEI's international track record, and PDAM's commitment to performance improvement. VEI training and coaching focused on strengthening the NRW management organisation, working processes, and skills to conduct top-down assessments by quantifying NRW components with historical data, localize leaks with live flow/pressure data, and pinpoint/repair leaks through active leak detection. PDAM staff demonstrated a steep learning curve by spearheading the establishment of a dedicated NRW department and sharpening its leak detection procedures to reduce NRW levels from 39 to 26% in 5 months in pilot area. The evaluated business case revealed that the relatively small investment (USD 60.000) was recovered within 1.2 years.

Unveiling the Hidden Power of Water Services Development Plans

South African Water Services Authorities (WSAs) have been grappling with the challenge of providing sustainable water and sanitation services which is a product of the sector’s inadequate planning and practices systems. Consequently, many communities which are the end-users endure inadequate access to sustainable water and sanitation services. Thus, establishing effective planning mechanisms becomes crucial to ensure the provision of adequate and sustainable water and sanitation services, and this is the central problem of analysis and prescription for this paper. Notably, the paper recommends an already existing systems approach to local governance that takes advantage of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to drive the modernisation of water and sanitation planning processes which are the Municipal Strategic Self-Assessment (MuSSA) and the Water Services Development Plan (WSDP). Through an emic perspective, systematic search of literature, and document analysis, this paper examines the 2022 MuSSA reports of Western Cape and Gauteng, to identify the challenges faced by the provinces. The findings reveal deficiencies in the Western Cape's investment in asset renewal, infrastructure management, reduction of non-revenue water, and adherence to national standards. Similarly, Gauteng requires comprehensive reforms to address financial instability, asset management, and regulatory compliance. The paper also examines the progress of WSDP development in the 2022-2027 cycle, specifically focusing on the 2022-2023 financial cycle to assess WSAs' compliance. Results indicate that, of 25 WSAs in the Western Cape, only 10 have initiated WSDP development, while 15 lag behind. In Gauteng, only 2 of 9 WSAs have begun the process. Notably, both provinces are behind schedule, having been expected to initiate WSDP development in 2022. The findings of this paper, give an invaluable snippet of the water services planning mechanisms at the local government to ensure proper monitoring and adequate intervention at a local level whilst ensuring the streamlining of resource allocation and recommends that the national government reflects on its shortcomings of ensuring legislative compliance by local government.

Analyzing non-revenue water dynamics in Rwanda: leveraging machine learning predictive modeling for comprehensive insights and mitigation strategies

ABSTRACT This study investigated non-revenue water (NRW) dynamics in Rwanda from 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2023, utilizing panel data and cross-sectional datasets. It aimed to assess progress toward achieving the government's 25% NRW reduction target. Through panel data analysis and machine learning models, it examined water supply variations, NRW levels, and associated risks across fiscal years and regions. The observed average NRW of 41.24% underscores the need for targeted interventions to meet the set target. Regional disparities, exemplified by Kigali City's water network's 38.61% average NRW compared to Nyagatare's 55.31%, emphasize the importance of tailored strategies. Machine learning models indicated low and inconsistent progress across networks. Notably, no single water supply managed to meet the target in more than 20% of the 36 quarters studied. Comparison with existing literature highlighted excessive NRW in Rwanda, aligning with global trends. Achieving the 25% NRW target requires region-specific approaches, necessitating infrastructure improvements, leak detection, and capacity building. The positive correlation between water loss risk and household access to improved water sources accentuated the complexity in NRW reduction efforts. This study contributes to understanding NRW dynamics and informs sustainable water management strategies tailored to Rwanda's context.

Non-revenue Water Reduction

SCADA systems are essential for water management in smart cities. They provide real-time monitoring, control, early detection of issues, efficiency improvements, enhanced resilience, and data-driven decision support. By leveraging SCADA technology, water utilities can optimize operations, reduce water losses, ensure a reliable supply, and contribute to sustainable water management in smart cities. Non Revenue Water (NRW) refers to water that is produced and lost before it reaches consumers or generates revenue for water service companies (WSCs). The summary highlights the importance of reducing non-potable water as it leads to increased water availability and revenues for WSCs. This is done by installing flow meters and water pressure measuring devices on the water sources or the entrances and exits of the isolated area, then calculating the amount of water feeding the area and the amount of water accounted for, and from it the amount of non-accountable water can be calculated, and work to reduce it by detecting leakage - Detecting stealth connections and installing water meters that work efficiently. The reduction of commercial losses, which includes issues like inaccurate billing or theft, can significantly improve revenue generation. Similarly, reducing physical/real losses, such as leaks or inefficient distribution systems, allows WSCs to postpone capital investments needed for water source development. To address this issue, departments such as Network Operations, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Hydraulic Analysis, and the commercial sector must collaborate to estimate and identify the different components contributing to NRW and water loss reduction.

An Evaluation of the Efficiency of the Localize, Locate, and Pinpoint Strategy in Reducing Water Loss

This study aimed to assess the efficiency of the Localize, Locate, and Pinpoint (LLP) strategy in curbing water loss within a water district. Employing a descriptive-comparative research design over seven days, the study utilized secondary data sourced from the water district office. This data, collected through noise loggers, electronic ground microphones, and other equipment associated with the LLP strategy, provided insights into the water loss reduction efforts. Before implementing the LLP strategy, the water district suffered from a high water loss exceeding 30%. Following the implementation, although the water loss remained high, it showed improvement, indicating that other factors might contribute to the loss. The results demonstrated a significant disparity in water loss before and after implementing the LLP strategy, suggesting that while complete elimination of losses may not be feasible, the strategy aids in substantial reduction. The study revealed that the noise levels, used as an indicator of potential leaks, exhibited a moderate confidence level before the implementation of the strategy. Conversely, after the LLP strategy adoption, the confidence level dropped to a low, indicating a decreased likelihood of leaks. Moreover, statistical analysis confirmed a noteworthy difference in noise levels before and after the implementation, lending support to the efficacy of the LLP strategy. Furthermore, this study underscores the positive impact of the Localize, Locate, and Pinpoint strategy on water loss reduction, despite not achieving complete elimination. The findings underscore the strategy's efficiency in identifying and minimizing potential leakages, thereby contributing to the reduction of non-revenue water within the water district.

Strategi Penurunan Non Revenue Water (NRW) melalui Analisis Neraca Air dan Indikator Kinerja NRW pada Jaringan Distribusi SPAM Cabang Karawang

Perumdam Tirta Tarum as a BUMD with healthy performance and has FCR (Full Cost Recovery), but the NRW (Non Revenue Water) score is still quite high at 32.16%. The Karawang branch is the largest contributor to the volume of water loss, around 33% of the total water loss in 19 Branches/IKK units in other service areas. This study uses water balance analysis methods and NRW performance indicators to formulate recommendations for NRW reduction programs. Annual water loss during the period April 2022 to March 2023 was 23.96% with a loss volume of 2,343,756m3/12 months. The percentage of physical water loss is 18.49% and non-physical water loss is 5.47%. When converted to cost values, the annual loss of non-physical water is Rp.2,610,791,315.- and the annual loss of physical water is Rp.8,640,197,936.-. Physical loss is classified as category C performance (severe leakage) and the overall ATR performance indicator is classified as category C (poor ATR condition). Recommendations or strategies for handling NRW efficiently at study locations can be formulated after understanding the causes of NRW and the most influencing component factors.

Evaluation of Non-revenue Water Management: A Case Study of Lodwar Water Supply in Lodwar Municipality, Kenya

This paper scrutinises the availability and effectiveness of non-revenue water management practices at Lodwar Water Supply, which serves an urban populace in Arid, Northern Kenya. The case study is representative of medium-sized water utilities serving populations in water-scarce areas within developing countries. Challenges encountered by water utilities in developing countries are unique, and their resolution requires context-specific approaches. For instance, Lodwar water supply posted an estimated 52% non-revenue water in a recent assessment by Kenya’s water services regulatory agency (WaSREB). The utility lost half of its production. This is unacceptable for a water utility serving an arid service area with 43% water coverage. This paper documents the findings of a causal study conducted to identify probable reasons for the water utility performance and develop recommendations to reverse the worsening non-revenue water trend. Four aspects were identified for scrutiny at the water utility; these were: Availability of strategies, methods, and policies for non-revenue water reduction; Employee and Consumer awareness of non-revenue water management; Techniques for enumeration of components of non-revenue water and the nexus between the foregoing and the prevailing poor non-revenue water and overall performance of the water utility. Three hundred eighty-five questionnaires were administered to consumers, randomly sampled across the selected study area. This was followed by a non-quantitative audit of non-revenue water practices by the water utility and focused group discussions with top management and technical staff at the water utility. This study established the absence of deliberate strategies for control of non-revenue water by the water utility as the critical reason for the unacceptably poor non-revenue water and overall performance of Lodwar Water Supply. Recommendations for mitigation of non-revenue water included the establishment of zone-specific, updated consumer database; DMAs with functional inflow meters; acquisition of meter testing and calibration system; institution of active leakage control initiatives and personnel capacity development

NON-REVENUE WATER (NRW) FOR SUSTAINABLE UNIVERSITY CAMPUSES: A REVIEW

Non-revenue water (NRW) is the difference between the supplied and the billed quantity due to apparent and real losses. A higher rate of NRW reflects higher revenue loss to the state. The NRW cannot be totally avoided, thus understanding, and managing its components is very vital. Of late, research on NRW particularly on University Campuses is still an emerging field. Hence, this paper delineates the overview of NRW, a sustainable University Campus, and the benefits of NRW in the University Campus’ sustainability. To do so, an extensive literature review via three main databases (ie., Web of Science, Science Direct, and Scopus) was conducted. From the review, six (6) aspects of NRW (ie., NRW prediction or estimation, the water distribution network, digital tools, NRW management, driver of water losses, and costeffectiveness of NRW) were discussed in the previous study. While, four (4) categories (i.e., water quality, customer complaints, water resources, and impact on service efficiency and financial management) are listed as benefits of NRW through the NRW reduction program in the sustainability of the University Campus. As a result, this paper is able to provide insight to University Stakeholders for the consideration of NRW in managing water management for sustainable campus development.

Efficiency of non-revenue water reduction in improving water supply performance in Indian metropolises

Abstract Many cities around the world face water crisis. Poor management contributes more to water crises than resource constraints. Multiple Indian metropolitan cities face severe water crises. These cities usually have high non-revenue water (NRW) levels. The present study estimates the efficiency of the extent of NRW management to improve per capita water supply (PCS) and cost recovery (CR) in 55 Indian metropolises with more than one million population. The study considered variable-returns-to-scale data envelopment analysis (DEA) using input orientation (I/P DEA). NRW has been used as the input variable, while the PCS and CR are studied as the output variables. The DEA model recommends that reduced NRW levels can address the water crisis in Indian cities. According to the DEA findings, about 38 Indian cities (68.09%) could reduce NRW levels by more than 50% while improving PCS and CR levels substantially. Around 47 cities (85.45%) can fulfil the water supply benchmark value of 135 litres per capita per day (lpcd). Three cities can improve the cost recovery by more than 100%. The findings suggest that water supply utilities in Indian cities should focus on reducing NRW levels substantially to improve the PCS and CR.

Assessing Non-Revenue Water Reduction Strategies by Water Service Providers in Kenya

This study assessed the Non-Revenue Water reduction strategies used by Water Service Providers in Kenya. High NRW affects the financial sustainability of many WSPs in Kenya. The objectives of the study are to ascertain the NRW reduction strategies being used and establish the level of NRW reduction strategy implementation. The researcher used mixed methods approach in conducting this study. He also used stratified random sampling to select a sample of 61 companies from a target population of 81 active water companies in Kenya. The research design for this study was both descriptive and analytical in nature. A semi structured questionnaire was sent online to collect both qualitative and quantitative data from the respondents and analysed using SPSS. A reliability test was also done on the research instruments using factor method analysis. Four theories were reviewed during the study and the key ones being the Managerial Efficiency Theory and the Theory of Constraints. The findings of the study confirmed that all the NRW reduction strategies are being used by the water companies in Kenya. However, other strategies are widely used more than others. The findings also revealed that there are various factors that hamper the full implementation of NRW reduction strategies. The study recommends that management should allocate adequate resources and prioritize NRW reduction activities and fully implement NRW reduction strategies. Managers should also develop policies, procedures and build structures that help in implementation of NRW reduction interventions, leverage technology and ensure that the budget making process takes care of all NRW reduction strategies.

GIS-Integrated Approach for Non-Revenue Water Reduction in Sumbawanga Urban District, Tanzania

This study sought to determine daily water consumption in the three zones of Sumbawanga Urban district. The study applied the geographical information system (GIS) to map and quantify non-revenue water (NRW), and tested the use of geospatial database management strategy to reduce NRW. The study used water distribution networks of zone A (Majengo ward), zone B (Katandala and Mazwi wards), and zone C (Chanji and Kizwite wards) that are served by the Sumbawanga Urban Water Supply Authority (SUWASA). The study collected water flow and water loss data by recording and mapping the existing water networks using a GPS device. The methodology for determining the quantity of NRW abstracted from the International Water Association (IWA), and maps made through QGIS, were used to show the degree of water loss by zones. A geo-database that assists in maintenance, budgeting, planning and procurement of water assets to reduce NRW was developed using postgress and postGIS, and connected to QGIS for visualization. Experimental results and computations indicate that around 8787.6m3 , 10718.3m3 , 14637.1m3 of water are consumed monthly in zones A, B and C, respectively. Furthermore, the results show that averages of 15.15%, 40.2%, and 24.52% of water are lost as NRW in zones A, B, and C, respectively. The NRW in all the three zones were greater than the maximum NRW of 20% recommended by Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA), and key performance indicators suggested by the SUWASA. This study inform planners and decisionmakers that management strategies should employ GIS to establish optimal routes for effective and quick response to bursts before losing a lot of water, instead of using traditional auditing systems that results into high NRW levels.

Assessment of energy performance and GHG emissions for the urban water cycle toward sustainability

Abstract This study presents a holistic approach to evaluate energy performance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from urban water supply and sanitation stages, which are important for sustainable water management and climate change mitigation. The study was conducted for Antalya city of Turkey to compare baseline and improved scenario conditions using the Energy Performance and Carbon Emissions Assessment and Monitoring (ECAM) tool. The current application of urban water and wastewater services was defined as the baseline scenario. For the improved urban water cycle, the reduction of non-revenue water, onsite sanitation prevention, increase in energy efficiency, biogas production and reuse of treated wastewater were investigated. Water supply and sanitation stages contributed to approximately 26 and 74% of total GHG emissions and 70 and 30% of energy consumption for the baseline scenario, respectively. GHG emissions were determined approximately as 52,423 tCO2eq/year for CO2 (40%), 47,029 tCO2eq/year for CH4 (35%) and 33,006 tCO2eq/year for N2O (25%) for the baseline scenario. The total GHG emissions of 132,457 tCO2eq/year and energy consumption of 136,328 MWh/year were reduced by 27.65% for GHG emissions and 16.48% for energy consumption for the improved urban water cycle. The outcomes of this research are expected to achieve sustainable cities and combat climate change.

AI-based acoustic leak detection in water distribution systems

Water loss in distribution networks known as Non-Revenue Water (NRW) is one of the major challenges facing water utilities. In a densely populated city, the acoustic listening method manually conducted by waterworks operators during routine leak pinpointing tasks is vital for NRW reduction. However, this method is considered to be typically labor-intensive, skill-dependent, non-systematic, and sometimes imprecise due to fatigue and inexperience of newly trained staff. This paper presents the development of an AI-based water leak detection system with cloud information management. The system can systematically collect and manage leakage sounds and generate a model used by a mobile application to provide operators with guidance for pinpointing leaking pipes. A leakage sound collection and management system was designed and implemented. Leakage sound datasets were collected from some multiple areas of the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority. Machine learning algorithms including Deep Neural Network (DNN), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), and Support Vector Machine (SVM), were developed and compared. The results show that the DNN performed better than SVM and as well as CNN, but with less complex structure. DNN was then selected to generate a model used in field trials for pinpointing leakage by novice operators. The field trial results show that the accuracy of the system is above 90% and the results were similar to those conducted by experts.

Assessment, Monitoring, and Reduction Strategy Development for Non- Revenue Water (NRW) of Calamba Water District (CWD), Calamba City, Laguna, Philippines

NRW is a portion of water supply that is lost and consequently, a wasted revenue for water distributor. This study develop reduction strategies of NRW in CWD through the assessment of the company’s operating practices by conducting interviews and determining the relationships between the real loss and the range of variation of pressure, and between the apparent loss and the number of service connections using simple linear regression method. Results shows that significant relationship was only shown between the number of service connections and apparent losses. Furthermore, the apparent losses came from the number of service connections is the highest contributor of water loss. Hence, the recommended reduction plans are to start and monitor the record of the age of infrastructure, to manage inaccurate meter readings, to establish a water meter repair and replacement program, and to have a regular monitoring for water theft to address the problems in NRW. Finally, it is also recommended to establish a new department that focuses in NRW reduction through standardizing zones and areas for assessment and monitoring purposes.

Understanding the determinants of public non-revenue water reduction intention in Selangor

Malaysia's high level of non-revenue water (NRW) has reduced the ability of the water service providers to accommodate increasing water demands and caused immense financial stress for their water-related infrastructure investment as well as operating expenditures. The main purpose of this work was to examine consumer behaviour towards NRW reduction based on an extended model that integrated the constructs of the theory of planned behaviour, environmental knowledge, environmental concern and the mediator of service performance. The proposed model was examined using a self-structured questionnaire and face-to-face interviews with a targeted sample of 400 citizens currently living in the state of Selangor, Malaysia, with the method of quota sampling. The research findings identified that the factors of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control and environmental knowledge had significant influences on NRW reduction intention. In addition, it was found that the construct of service performance had a partial mediation effect in the relationship between perceived behavioural control and behavioural intention towards NRW reduction. The findings of this study could assist water-related stakeholders to develop contemporary and effective NRW reduction strategies.

Water Distribution and Non-Revenue Water Management Scenario in Asian countries: Malaysian Perspective

It is being estimated by the World Bank that the operations and maintenance cost for the basic water and sanitation services (WASH) is expected to increase from 4 to 30 Billion USD per year by 2030 which substantially surpass the capital cost of basic WASH services. Still the local and global funding prioritize the capital investment in the current water infrastructure resulting in the lack or no funding for the operation and maintenance mandates especially in the developing countries of Asia due to insufficient revenue generated from consumers to cover the operational and maintenance costs. This has subsequently caused an adverse impact on the financial utility and services rendered to consumers. Many water utilities are facing difficulties with high amount of Non-Revenue Water (NRW) for the past few years. Water utilities are being forced to consider implementing an efficient NRW reduction strategy due to the rapid population growth and industrialization raise the water demand and put pressure on the water resources. Public water utilities are expected to apprehend the demand by increasing the capacity. On the other hand, to solve the increasing water demand it is not enough to just increase the capacity and production. Combine both Non-Revenue Water and the increasing of capacity is more efficient rather than a single approach plan. In Malaysia, there is 35% of non-revenue water loss and mostly are caused by pipe leakages and breakage. This paper aims to assess the NRW reduction strategies by analysing the factors affecting, and challenges faced by Malaysian water utilities in reducing NRW rates. This paper also evaluates the public perception on Non-Revenue water management to establish a way to develop public participation in Non-Revenue Water reduction program. Finding shows that public participation in Non-Revenue Water reduction management in Malaysia remains lacking as many respondents indicate a lack of knowledge and awareness in non-revenue water. Participation from the community to achieve a sustainable water source management is important to enhance Malaysia’s water safety. The paper will provide an insight to the water distribution in the Southeast Asian countries and will especially emphasize on the crisis of non-revenue water its implications and possible measures and strategies to improve the situation.

Estimating Opportunity Cost as A Tool to Evaluate Water Loss Management of Non-Revenue Water at PDAM Tirta Khatulistiwa

Water loss or Non-Revenue Water (NRW) is a national problem PDAMs, including PDAM Tirta Khatulistiwa. In fact, with a high level of water loss, there is a significant potential loss of income. This study aims to implement opportunity cost calculation as a managerial tool for PDAM Tirta Khatulistiwa in making investment decisions to improve water loss management. This research was conducted by collecting information from financial, managerial, and local government equity participation reports. Then the data reduction is carried out and calculated based on the gross margin, net profit margin, and the opportunity cost. This study indicates that the capital investment provided by the Pontianak City’s government has increased, followed by an increase in the number of consumers. However, it was not followed by an increase in the company’s profit. This is due to the opportunity cost or lost income during the business process amounting to Rp31,218,673,384.64 in 2019 with a potential income to Rp222,663,258,365.00 if it manages to suppress distribution leakage to the level of 20%. This potential income is worthy of consideration for PDAM Tirta Khatulistiwa to start water loss management in the NRW reduction program.

Non-revenue water reduction strategies: a systematic review

PurposeSustainability involves ensuring that sufficient resources are available for current and future generations. Non-revenue water (NRW) creates a barrier to sustainability through energy and water loss. However, a comprehensive overview of NRW reduction strategies is lacking. This study reviews the existing literature to identify available strategies for reducing NRW and its components and discusses their merits.Design/methodology/approachA systematic literature review was conducted to identify and analyze different strategies for reducing NRW. The initial search identified 158 articles, with 41 of these deemed suitably relevant following further examination. Finally, 14 NRW reduction strategies were identified from the selected articles.FindingsThe identified NRW reduction strategies were grouped into strategies for reducing (1) apparent losses (AL), (2) real losses (RL) and (3) water losses, with the latter involving the combination of AL and RL. The strategies adopted most frequently are “prevent water leakage” and “control water pressure.” In addition, water distribution network (WDN) rehabilitation has additional benefits over other RL reduction strategies, including saving water and energy, increasing hydraulic performance and enhancing reliability. Finally, utilizing decision support systems is the only strategy capable of reducing multiple NRW categories.Originality/valueThis review provides insights into the overall NRW problem and the strategies best equipped to address it. Authorities can use these findings to develop case-specific NRW reduction action plans that save water and energy, while providing other economic benefits. In addition, NRW reduction can improve WDN reliability.

Economic analysis of rehabilitation approaches for water distribution networks: comparative study between Egypt and Malaysia

PurposeSustainable water management has been a trending goal in the past decade. Non-revenue water (NRW) is one form of water loss that should be addressed to reach water sustainability. While rehabilitating water distribution networks (WDNs) is one way to decrease NRW, the process is often delayed owing to cost. Therefore, it is essential to provide decision-makers with cost-effective approaches to optimize WDN rehabilitation. This study aims to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of approaches for rehabilitating WDN from developing countries’ perspectives.Design/methodology/approachA systematic literature review was first conducted to identify different WDN rehabilitation methods and techniques to develop the questionnaire survey. This is followed by collecting questionnaire survey data in Malaysia and Egypt on the cost and effectiveness of the WDN rehabilitation methods and techniques. A total of 176 respondents were collected, 109 from Malaysia and 67 from Egypt. Then, the data were analyzed using mean score ranking with normalization technique and agreement analysis.FindingsThe results from the data analysis show that the cost-effective approaches are “programming,” “simulation,” “digital twin” and “supervisory control and data acquisition.” Additionally, the data from Malaysia suggest two additional cost-effective approaches: “zoning network” and “genetic algorithm.”Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this paper presents one of the first studies that laterally compares the cost-effectiveness of existing and potential WDN rehabilitation approaches between different countries. There is yet a study that compared these WDN rehabilitation approaches. This comparison which is developed depending on the systematic review could be a reference for future studies or surveys which could be done on different countries in the future. The main findings of this paper can be a useful reference for decision-makers, especially those from middle-income countries, when looking into approaches for WDN rehabilitation. A better WDN rehabilitation supports NRW reduction, moving towards sustainable water management.