Nonresident Father Involvement Research Articles

Closeness and Direct Engagement: A Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Non-Resident Father Involvement

Measures of father involvement have predominantly comprised quantitative/frequency measures of direct engagement activities with children. Such measures tend to show that non-resident fathers are less involved than resident fathers and limit our understanding of non-resident fathering. This study’s purpose was to identify a construct of non-resident fathering that included an affective dimension, father–child closeness, among racially/ethnically diverse fathers and their nine-year-old children ( N = 1267). A confirmatory factor analysis using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study was conducted using father- and mother-reports of paternal direct engagement and child reports of father–child closeness. Results indicated a good model fit and that father–child closeness and direct engagement were appropriate indicators of non-resident father involvement. Results suggest that researchers should consider including both affective and frequency measures when studying father involvement, and practitioners should attend to the potential value of promoting father–child closeness among racially/ethnically diverse, low-income fathers.

The Effect of Paternal Economic Hardship on Nonresident Father Involvement and Co-parenting Among Racially/Ethnically Diverse Fathers

The present study utilized structural equation modeling with secondary Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study data ( N = 1,267) to examine the relations between paternal economic hardship, nonresident father involvement, and co-parenting. Findings showed that paternal economic hardship (Year 5) was associated with higher child-reported father–child closeness ( p < .05), but lower father-reported co-parenting ( p < .05), at Year 9. Higher mother-reported co-parenting (Year 9) was associated with increased mother-reported father involvement ( p < .001) at Year 9. Findings underscore the importance of including multiple perspectives, and practical implications include the need for practitioners to foster healthy co-parenting relationships to concurrently increase nonresident father involvement among racially/ethnically diverse and low-income fathers.

Nonresident Fathers and the Economic Precarity of Their Children

This study examines the relationship between nonresident fathers and their children’s economic precarity. We use a racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse sample of children in large U.S. cities and consider a comprehensive set of measures of the involvement of nonresident fathers in their lives. We evaluate both voluntary and involuntary (court-ordered child support) involvement of fathers, and we look at material hardship and income-to-poverty ratio as measures of children’s economic precarity. We find that only high levels of formal child support have a protective effect on children’s economic well-being, while fathers’ voluntary involvement (experienced by 70 percent of children) has a more consistent protective effect. Overall, policies to reduce children’s economic precarity need to focus on improving nonresident fathers’ ability to be involved with and contribute to their children, as well as on direct assistance to custodial mother families.

COVID-19 and the relationships and involvement of nonresident fathers.

ObjectiveTo support nonresident fathers in maintaining involvement and relationships with their children during the COVID‐19 pandemic, we must understand how such fathers have been impacted thus far by the pandemic.BackgroundAll families have been impacted by the pandemic, but fathers who do not reside with their children are particularly likely to be negatively impacted. Social distancing, restrictions on travel, job loss/economic downturn, family court closures, and numerous other effects of the COVID‐19 crisis impact the ability of nonresident fathers to maintain relationships and involvement with their children.MethodThe current study analyzed retrospective data from 373 nonresident U.S. fathers to assess perceived parenting and coparenting changes during the pandemic, as well as whether coparenting relationships and mental health were associated with their involvement and relationships with their children.ResultsOn average, fathers' involvement, father–child relationship quality, and coparenting support declined, but wide variability also existed, with a substantial minority of fathers reporting increased involvement. Coparenting support was positively associated with current levels of involvement and relationship quality as well as changes to both since the pandemic, but mental health was inconsistently associated with outcomes.Conclusion and ImplicationsTo keep these average declines from becoming permanent, future research should investigate what factors foster higher involvement and improved relationships. Practitioners should offer additional support to nonresident fathers to promote their involvement and relationships in ways compatible with evolving restrictions.

Resident and Non-resident Father Involvement, Coparenting, and the Development of Children's Self-Regulation Among Families Facing Economic Hardship.

Self-regulation, or the ability to effectively manage emotions and behavior, is a critical skill to develop in early childhood. Children living in a context of economic hardship are at an increased risk for developing self-regulation difficulties. However, few studies have comprehensively examined how multiple aspects of the caregiving environment, including fathers’ parenting and coparenting quality, may contribute to child self-regulation. Thus, this study applied a family systems perspective to examine whether coparenting and resident and non-resident fathers’ reports of parenting quantity and quality were associated with observations of children’s self-regulation. Participants were drawn from the Embedded Developmental Study (n = 257) of the Three-City Study, a longitudinal study of children and families facing economic hardship. At Wave 1, when children were 2–4 years old, reports of parenting (i.e., quantity and quality) and coparenting (i.e., support) were obtained. At Wave 2, when children were 3–6 years old, children participated in a snack delay and gift wrap task, which assessed their self-regulation. Multi-group path analyses indicated that resident fathers’ harsh parenting at Wave 1 predicted decreased levels of self-regulation at Wave 2. Non-resident fathers’ reported hours of involvement at Wave 1 predicted greater levels of self-regulation at Wave 2. Additionally, supportive coparenting among families with a non-resident father predicted greater self-regulation. Supportive coparenting was not associated with child self-regulation in families with a resident father. The implications for research focused on facilitating positive father–child relationships in diverse family contexts are discussed.

Adverse childhood experiences and behavior problems among poor Black children: Nonresident father involvement and single mothers' parenting stress

BackgroundAdverse childhood experiences (ACEs) in early childhood and developmental outcomes during the middle childhood and adolescent years have been understudied among low-income Black families. ObjectiveTo test a model linking economic hardship, single mothers' parenting stress, ACEs, and nonresident fathers' involvement in early childhood to behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Participants and settingWe used six waves of longitudinal data from a subsample of 800 unmarried Black mothers, nonresident fathers, and their children (at child birth and ages 1, 3, 5, 9, and 15) from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a nationally representative data set. MethodStructural equation models with latent variables that incorporate path analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were tested. ResultsMothers' economic hardship was associated directly with parenting stress (beta = 0.27, p < .001) and related both directly (beta = 0.22, p < .001) and indirectly (through parenting stress) to the children's increased likelihood of exposure to ACEs (indirect effect = 0.05, p < .001). Nonresident fathers' involvement early on (child's age 1 to 5) was associated directly with reductions in the mothers' economic hardship (beta = −0.18, p < .001), children's reduced exposure to ACEs (beta = −0.15, p < .001), and fewer behavior problems in middle childhood and adolescence (beta = −0.10, p < .001). ConclusionNonresident Black fathers' involvement in single-mother families may buffer the adverse consequences over time for economically and socially disadvantaged Black children of exposure to ACEs in early childhood. Interventions that encourage sustained involvement by nonresident Black fathers with young children and their single mothers are recommended.

Father Involvement Among Nonresident Dads: Does Paternity Leave Matter?

AbstractObjectiveThis article examines whether paternity leave influences father involvement among nonresident fathers, if associations differ by coresidential status, and whether leave is a stronger predictor of nonresident father involvement than other indicators of father identity or interest.BackgroundFathering promotes child development, yet many children are born to unmarried parents and do not live with their fathers. Paternity leave may increase fathering among nonresident fathers, but extant research has largely overlooked these fathers.MethodUsing the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N∼2,000), a longitudinal birth cohort of largely low‐income families, this study examines the link between paternity leave and parenting using regression analyses.ResultsLeave‐taking was associated with higher reports of engagement for both coresident and nonresident fathers, but for maternal reports of trust, coparenting, and responsibility, the positive associations with leave‐taking were concentrated among nonresident fathers. Nonresident fathers who took leave were more likely to provide in‐kind child support but not monetary support. Although leave, prenatal involvement, and being at the birth were all associated with greater involvement among nonresident fathers, mothers' reports of fathering were more strongly influenced by prenatal involvement and being at the hospital for the birth than leave.ConclusionLeave‐taking is associated with maternal reports of trust, coparenting, and responsibility for nonresident fathers but not coresident fathers. Leave and prenatal involvement predict nonresident father involvement.

Pathways Linking Nonresident Father Involvement and Child Outcomes

Although previous studies have found small effects of nonresident father involvement on child outcomes, the mechanisms linking nonresident father involvement to child outcomes is understudied. This review examines the maternal processes that link nonresident father involvement to children’s development. We reviewed ten longitudinal mediational studies that examined the indirect associations between nonresident father involvement and child outcomes. All of the studies reviewed included samples comprised of predominantly Black mothers with young children. Using ecological models, researchers found that maternal factors, including maternal parenting, maternal parenting stress, and maternal depression, mediate the relationships between nonresident father involvement and child outcomes. Maternal parenting has also been found to mediate the influence of both maternal parenting stress and maternal depression on child outcomes. Of the longitudinal mediational models reviewed, limited studies found support for the direct relationship between nonresident father involvement and child outcomes. We propose a conceptual model for explaining the indirect relationship between nonresident father involvement and children’s developmental outcomes. The model delineates the role of maternal parenting, maternal parenting stress, and maternal depression as mediators in the relationship between nonresident father involvement and child outcomes. The conceptual model extends previously tested models by highlighting the central process of maternal parenting to child outcomes as influenced by nonresident father involvement transmitted through maternal parenting stress and maternal depression. Implications for future research on the role of nonresidential fathers in children’s development and interventions for increasing nonresidential father involvement are provided.

Perceptions of Nonresident Father Involvement Among Low‐Income Youth and Their Single Parents

ObjectiveTo examine sources of theoretical variation in youth and caregiver perceptions of nonresident father involvement.BackgroundRelationship complexity and environmental factors can result in complicated trajectories of father involvement. We examined both caregiver and youth perceptions of nonresident father–child relationships among low‐income, single‐parent families that were often affected by paternal incarceration.MethodThe present study drew from a sample of families served by a Big Brothers Big Sisters (BBBS) program in a metropolitan region of a Mid‐Atlantic state. In‐depth interviews with 27 caregivers and their 33 children were the basis of a qualitative analysis.ResultsFindings revealed 4 typologies of perceived father involvement: disengaged, sporadic, encouraged, and engaged. Description was thickest regarding the complexities paternal incarceration posed for nonresident fathers' relationships with children and caregivers' attempts to mediate between children and fathers.ConclusionNarratives about nonresident fathers were situated within complicated ecologies of environmental press such as incarceration, geographic separation, and relationship quality challenges that changed as families adapted to new realities and shifts in kin networks. Maternal mediation between children and their fathers was not a simple judgment and driven by real concerns about children's well‐being in highly stigmatized environments or older youths' contact preferences.ImplicationsCaregivers' concerns about children's fathers need to be understood as part of any programmatic efforts aimed at enhancing coparenting in nonresident‐father families. Families with encouraged forms of nonresident‐father involvement might be particularly receptive to intervention aimed at facilitating positive father–child relationships.

Moving Past Dichotomies of Fathering Roles: A New Approach

ObjectiveThis study revisits conceptual and operational definitions of fatherhood status to better account for family complexity characteristic of contemporary families.BackgroundFamily complexity has emerged as a theme in research on contemporary families in the United States. Scholars have revisited methodological approaches to more readily document diversity and complexity characteristic of many families. Yet, the current conceptualization and operationalization of fatherhood status has lagged by focusing on a man's ties to one focal child.MethodThe authors advocate for an approach that encapsulates ties men have with biological resident children, nonresident biological children, and resident stepchildren simultaneously. Analyses make use of the 2006 to 2015 National Survey of Family Growth, a nationally representative, repeated cross‐section and employ descriptive and multivariate analyses to identify the prevalence of various fatherhood statuses and consider the implications for father involvement among nonresident fathers.ResultsFindings indicated that one in five fathers' ties to children were not adequately described by traditional approaches to measuring fatherhood. In addition, complexity in fatherhood status was only marginally associated with nonresident biological fathers' economic support to children when sociodemographic characteristics were considered.ConclusionTraditional approaches proved most problematic for non‐White and socioeconomically disadvantaged men. We demonstrate the utility of our proposed approach to measuring fatherhood status by considering its linkage with nonresident father involvement and conclude by considering the implications these findings have for family policy.

Race/Ethnic Differences in Nonresident Fathers' Involvement after a Nonmarital Birth.

This article examines how the levels of nonresidential father involvement (over child ages 1 to 9) differ by race/ethnicity (comparing White, Black and Hispanic fathers), and then considers how individual and couple characteristics may 'account for' any observed differences. Data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 2,447) and random effects models were used to examine how nonresidential father involvement (with respect to time, engagement, shared responsibility, and coparenting with mothers) is differentiated by race and ethnicity. Overall, Black nonresident fathers were significantly more likely to spend time and engage in activities with their children as compared to Hispanic fathers-but not White fathers. Black fathers also shared responsibilities more frequently and displayed more effective coparenting than Hispanic and White fathers. Fathers' involvement with children is shown to differ across major race/ethnic groups, with implications for children as well as for future research and public policy.

Quantity versus quality of nonresident father involvement: Deconstructing the argument that quantity doesn’t matter

ABSTRACTOver the last few decades, numerous studies have examined the impact of nonresident fathers on the well-being of their children, including two meta-analyses. Such research consistently has demonstrated that when nonresident fathers are involved with their children in positive ways, their children benefit substantially; however, studies also have found that the amount of nonresident father contact, in and of itself, typically is not associated with children’s well-being. Some scholars, practitioners, and policymakers have framed the nonsignificant associations between contact and child well-being as an argument against joint physical custody. This paper examines why such reasoning is flawed, and why both quality and quantity of nonresident father involvement are necessary to consider when wanting to promote the well-being of children.

Single mothers, the role of fathers, and the risk for child maltreatment

Single motherhood has long been linked to the risk for child maltreatment. However, little is known about the role of fathers in buffering mothers' risk for child maltreatment. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, this paper investigates (1) the ways in which non-resident fathers' economic contributions and involvement in parenting may moderate associations between mothers' transitions to being single and the risk for child maltreatment, and (2) whether these processes vary by race/ethnicity. Results indicate that mothers' transitions to being single are not strongly associated with the risk for child abuse. However, mothers' transitions to being single are associated with an increase in the risk for child neglect, and this is moderated by non-resident father involvement. Last, Black but not other mothers' transitions to being single are associated with the risk for child abuse, and are largely not moderated by non-resident father involvement.

Maternal Repartnering: Does Father Involvement Matter? Evidence from United Kingdom

Maternal repartnering may have benefits for mothers and children. Yet, mothers with coresident children face more difficulty repartnering than other adults. Despite that shared physical custody and father involvement have increased over time, few studies have examined whether nonresidential father involvement and financial support are associated with subsequent maternal repartnering. Using data from the UK Millennium Cohort Study, we found a negative relationship between nonresident father involvement and subsequent maternal repartnering among mothers who were neither married nor cohabiting at childbirth. A potential explanation is that these parents may be engaged in fluid and uncertain relationships, and that the ambiguity thereof may discourage maternal repartnering. We found no association between father involvement and maternal repartnering for mothers who were cohabiting with or married to the father at the time of birth. Finally, we found no association between child support (maintenance) receipt and maternal repartnering, regardless of parental relationship status at the birth.

Do nonresident fathers compensate for a lack of household resources? The associations between paternal involvement and children’s cognitive and educational assessments in the UK

This article investigated the associations between nonresident fathers’ involvement and cognitive and educational achievements in children. In particular, we tested the resource compensation model, which predicts that the involvement of nonresident fathers should compensate for the lack of household resources and that the effect should be strong, particularly in families with low resources. We use the British Millennium Cohort Study (n=3445), in which 11-year-old children’s cognitive and educational assessments were measured using the British Ability Scale and household resources were measured using maternal education and occupation, family income, and number of books in the home (i.e., cultural capital). We found that the involvement of nonresident fathers was associated with higher scores more strongly in families with the lowest level of cultural capital, compared with others. However, nonresident fathers’ involvement was not associated with child scores more strongly in lower resource households than in higher resource households, when the resources were measured by maternal education and occupation and by family income. The results showed that, although the involvement of nonresident fathers might compensate for a lack of household resources, the effect tends to vary between resource types.

Father involvement in child welfare: Associations with changes in externalizing behavior

Nonresident fathers can have a significant impact on children's behavioral outcomes. Unfortunately, the impact of nonresident father involvement on the behavioral outcomes of children with child welfare involvement has received scant attention in the literature, a limitation the current study sought to address. A sample of 333 children in state custody in Illinois between the ages of six and 13 participated and were assessed using the externalizing behavior scale of the Child and Adolescent Needs and Strengths (CANS) at regular intervals throughout their time in care. Father involvement was measured through a review of case files and interviews with child welfare workers. Growth trajectories were fit to children's externalizing behavior across time and were predicted using Time 1 characteristics. Father involvement, total non-father relative involvement, and gender (girls) was associated with lower baseline externalizing behavior and the African American children in the sample experienced higher baseline externalizing behavior. However, only Time 1 father involvement predicted slope trajectories after controlling for Time 1 externalizing behavior; more father involvement was associated with lower externalizing behavior trajectories. These results suggest that even in the unique and stressful context of child welfare, father involvement can be protective regarding children's externalizing behaviors.

Non-Residential Father-Child Involvement, Interparental Conflict and Mental Health of Children Following Divorce: A Person-Focused Approach.

Variable-centered research has found complex relationships between child well-being and two critical aspects of the post-divorce family environment: the level of non-residential father involvement (i.e., contact and supportive relationship) with their children and the level of conflict between the father and mother. However, these analyses fail to capture individual differences based on distinct patterns of interparental conflict, father support and father contact. Using a person-centered latent profile analysis, the present study examined (1) profiles of non-residential father contact, support, and interparental conflict in the 2years following divorce (N=240), when children (49% female) were between 9 and 12years of age and (2) differences across profiles in concurrent child adjustment outcomes as well as outcomes 6years later. Four profiles of father involvement were identified: High Contact-Moderate Conflict-Moderate Support, Low Contact-Moderate Conflict-Low Support, High Conflict-Moderate Contact-Moderate Support, and Low Conflict-Moderate Contact-Moderate Support. Concurrently, children with fathers in the group with high conflict were found to have significantly greater internalizing and externalizing problems compared to all other groups. Six years later, children with fathers in the group with low contact and low support were found to have greater internalizing and externalizing problems compared to children with fathers in the high conflict group, and also greater internalizing problems compared to children with fathers in the low conflict group. These results provide insight into the complex relationship among non-residential fathers' conflict, contact, and support in child adjustment within divorcing families.

The influence of nonresident fathers on adolescent and young adult cigarette smoking.

In this analysis we examine the relationship between nonresidential father involvement with their children and adolescent smoking behavior using a nationally representative longitudinal dataset. We attempt to determine what influence, if any, nonresident fathers have in the development of this health risk behavior in their adolescent children while accounting for aspects of parenting and family life that have been hypothesized to also influence adolescent cigarette smoking. Data for this analysis come from the first 3 waves of the Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Given the longitudinal nature of the data, we are able to ascertain whether nonresident father involvement affects adolescent cigarette smoking, an important advance in our understanding of the influence of fathers. We found that greater levels of nonresidential father involvement significantly decrease both the odds of participation in and the intensity of cigarette smoking, especially among girls. This influence is demonstrated not only in adolescence but persists into young adulthood. Our findings underscore the importance of adolescents' living arrangements and the role that nonresident fathers might play in influencing adolescent cigarette smoking, a health risk behavior of strong public health significance. Fathers make important contributions to the health and wellbeing of their children, and interventions focused on nonresident fathers in particular would likely be of significant help to the substance abuse prevention field. Interventions to support father involvement, particularly of nonresident fathers, with their children should be implemented as a preventive strategy to reduce the likelihood of adolescent cigarette smoking.

Nonresident Father Involvement With Children and Divorced Women's Likelihood of Remarriage.

Although remarriage is a relatively common transition, little is known about how nonresident fathers affect divorced mothers' entry into remarriage. Using the 1979-2010 rounds of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979, the authors examined the likelihood of remarriage for divorced mothers (N = 882) by nonresident father contact with children and payment of child support. The findings suggest that maternal remarriage is positively associated with nonresident father contact but not related to receiving child support.

PATTERNS OF CONTACT AND INVOLVEMENT BETWEEN ADOLESCENTS AND THEIR NON-RESIDENT FATHERS

This study examined the patterns of contact and involvement between adolescents and their non-resident fathers after divorce. The data were analysed to determine the role of Lamb, Pleck and Levine’s (1986) three constructs in the involvement of non-resident fathers, i.e. interaction, availability and responsibility. The results indicated that the majority of male and female adolescents reported continued direct and indirect contact with their fathers, regardless of paternal remarriage and the lapse of time since the divorce. Boys reported higher levels of communication and feelings of emotional closeness than girls. Overall, the study postulates that non-resident fathers play a less significant role in providing parental guidance to their children.