Nonmaltreating Families Research Articles

Mind-mindedness in a high-risk sample: Differential benefits for developmental outcomes based on child maltreatment.

Mind-mindedness is associated with positive developmental outcomes. However, much of the literature uses mostly White, middle to high socioeconomic status (SES) samples despite evidence that the benefits of mind-mindedness may vary based on degree of social risk. Additionally, few studies have examined relations between mind-mindedness and language development. The current study investigates whether mind-mindedness predicts children's language development and behavioral functioning and if family history of childhood maltreatment moderates the relation of mind-mindedness to these outcomes. Participants were 98 mothers (49.0% Black, 24.5% White, 13.3% Latina, 7.2% multiracial; 81.6% low SES per Hollingshead classifications) and their children (49 boys, 49 girls) from the Rochester, New York area recruited at Time 1 (Mage = 13.34 months) and followed up twice (Mages = 27.51 [Time 2] and 39.31 months [Time 3]). Mother-child dyads participated in videotaped free play interactions at Times 1 and 2. Using transcripts of these interactions, we coded mind-mindedness at Times 1 and 2 and children's internal state language at Time 2. Mothers reported on children's behavioral functioning at Time 3. Findings revealed that Time 2 mind-mindedness predicted fewer Time 3 behavioral difficulties in children from maltreating families but did not predict behavioral difficulties in children from nonmaltreating families. Additionally, Time 1 mind-mindedness predicted children's Time 2 use of decontextualized internal state language. Findings highlight the importance of examining mind-mindedness in higher risk populations and how mind-mindedness can be leveraged as a protective factor to prevent future maladjustment in children at risk for adverse outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Child internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic among maltreating and non-maltreating families: Examining the effects of family resources and the Reminiscing and Emotion Training intervention

BackgroundThe effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on child functioning have been especially pronounced among low-income families. Protective factors, including sensitive reminiscing and sufficient family resources, may reduce the negative effects of the pandemic on child adjustment. ObjectiveThe current study investigated how family resources during the pandemic, race, maltreatment, and pre-pandemic involvement in an emotion socialization intervention (Myears ago = 4.37, SD = 1.36) were associated with child internalizing symptoms during the pandemic. Participants and settingThe study utilized longitudinal data following 137 maltreating and low-income nonmaltreating mother–child dyads (Mage = 9.08, SD = 1.88; 54.7% Male). MethodsMother–child dyads engaged in a randomized controlled trial of the Reminiscing and Emotion Training (RET; Valentino et al., 2019) intervention prior to the pandemic. Dyads discussed shared, past emotional experiences, and during the pandemic, mothers reported on their family resources and their child's internalizing symptoms. A path analysis examined the effects of family resources, race, maltreatment, and the RET intervention on child internalizing symptoms. ResultsFamily resources during the pandemic were significantly and inversely associated with child internalizing symptoms, b = −0.07, SE = 0.02, p < .01. There was a significant indirect effect of RET on child internalizing symptoms through sensitive reminiscing and a prior assessment of child maladjustment (95% CI [−0.294, −0.001]). ConclusionsThese findings suggest adequate family resources and sensitive maternal emotion socialization may be protective against child internalizing symptoms during the pandemic.

Longitudinal Effects of Reminiscing and Emotion Training on Child Maladjustment in the Context of Maltreatment and Maternal Depressive Symptoms.

Exposure to child maltreatment and maternal depression are significant risk factors for the development of psychopathology. Difficulties in caregiving, including poor emotion socialization behavior, may mediate these associations. Thus, enhancing supportive parent emotion socialization may be a key transdiagnostic target for preventive interventions designed for these families. Reminiscing and Emotion Training (RET) is a brief relational intervention designed to improve maternal emotion socialization behavior by enhancing maltreating mothers' sensitive guidance during reminiscing with their young children. This study evaluated associations between maltreatment, maternal depressive symptoms, and the RET intervention with changes in children's maladjustment across one year following the intervention, and examined the extent to which intervention-related improvement in maternal emotion socialization mediated change in children's maladjustment. Participants were 242 children (aged 36 to 86months) and their mothers from maltreating (66%) and nonmaltreating (34%) families. Results indicated that RET intervention-related improvement in maternal sensitive guidance mediated the effects of RET on reduced child maladjustment among maltreated children one year later. By comparison, poor sensitive guidance mediated the effects of maltreatment on higher child maladjustment among families that did not receive the RET intervention. Direct effects of maternal depressive symptoms on child maladjustment were also observed. This suggests RET is effective in facilitating emotional and behavioral adjustment in maltreated children by improving maltreating mothers' emotional socialization behaviors.

Elaborative Reminiscing and Child Receptive Language in the Context of Maltreatment: The Moderating Role of Maternal Sensitivity.

This study investigated whether the effect of maternal elaborative reminiscing on child language is moderated by maternal sensitivity and whether this association depends on children's experience of maltreatment. A total of 236 mothers and their 3- to 7-year-old children (mean age = 5 years) were observed interacting with experimenter-provided toys in the lab and at home, and maternal sensitivity was coded from these interactions. Of that, 155 of the children had a history of maltreatment with the mother being named a perpetrator, and the remaining dyads were demographically matched with no history of maltreatment. Dyads were also asked to discuss four past emotional events, and these conversations were coded for maternal elaborative reminiscing. Children and mothers participated in an assessment of receptive language. Findings revealed an unqualified positive main effect of elaborative reminiscing on children's receptive language in the nonmaltreating families. However, for maltreated children, elaborative reminiscing was only associated with higher child receptive language when mothers were also more sensitive. These findings indicate that, in the context of maltreatment, both elaborative reminiscing and more general aspects of the quality of the parent-child relationship are important for facilitating child receptive language.

Emotion Socialization and Developmental Risk: Interactive Effects of Receptive Language and Maltreatment on Reminiscing.

Emotional reminiscing, or mother-child discussion of past emotional experiences, is a critical aspect of emotion socialization that predicts a range of child outcomes and is central to parent-child interventions. Thus, understanding individual differences in emotional reminiscing will advance our ability to identify families at-risk for poor emotion dialogues and to adapt interventions for diverse populations, such as families affected by maltreatment and mothers and children with low language abilities. The present study examined associations among maternal and child receptive language with emotional reminiscing and the moderating role of maltreatment. Two hundred and twenty three underserved, racially diverse mothers (144 maltreating) and their preschool aged children completed measures of receptive language (PPVT-4). Emotional reminiscing was comprehensively measured using maternal report and observations of emotion dialogues, including ratings of elaborations, maternal sensitive guidance, and child cooperative exploration. Child language was positively associated with all observed aspects of child reminiscing, and the association between child language and maternal reminiscing was moderated by maltreatment. For non-maltreating families, child language was positively associated with maternal factual elaborations and sensitive guidance. For the maltreating families, these associations were not significant, demonstrating that maltreatment disrupted the association between child language and reminiscing. Maternal language was significantly associated with maternal report of emotion dismissing behaviors, regardless of maltreatment status. Results highlight that language is an essential individual difference factor contributing to variance in emotion dialogues, and that maltreatment influences how child language relates to reminiscing. Future directions and clinical implications for families affected by developmental risk are considered.

Reduced Autobiographical Memory Specificity Among Maltreated Preschoolers: The Indirect Effect of Neglect Through Maternal Reminiscing.

Maternal reminiscing and preschoolers' (M=5.00years, SD=1.11) autobiographical memory specificity (AMS) were examined among abusive (n=24), neglecting (n=78), emotionally maltreating (n=32), and demographically similar nonmaltreating families (n=74). Neglect was negatively associated with child AMS and the quantity of maternal elaborations. In a moderated mediation model, neglect was negatively associated with the quantity of maternal elaborations, which was positively associated with AMS when mothers reminisced in a coherent and sensitive manner (i.e., affective quality). In the context of high maternal affective quality, maternal elaborative quantity accounted for reduced AMS among neglected preschoolers. The findings extend observations of reduced AMS to neglected preschoolers and inform theoretical models of autobiographical memory development.

Adherence to Diurnal Cortisol Sampling Among Mother-Child Dyads From Maltreating and Nonmaltreating Families.

There has been increasing interest in evaluating whether interventions for child maltreatment can improve and/or prevent child physiological dysregulation via measurement of diurnal cortisol. The assessment of diurnal cortisol typically involves the home-based collection of saliva multiple times per day, bringing forth important methodological considerations regarding adherence to collection instructions. To date, there has been no data regarding adherence to home collection of diurnal cortisol among maltreating families. The current study provides data on adherence to in-home sampling of salivary cortisol among 166 maltreating and demographically similar nonmaltreating mother-child dyads using electronic monitoring devices (Medication Event Monitoring System caps). Mothers collected saliva samples on themselves and their children 3 times per day (waking, midday, and evening) for 2 consecutive days. Analyses reveal that although maltreating families were more likely to be nonadherent to the collection protocol on their initial attempt, with additional support and resampling, maltreating and nonmaltreating families were comparable on most measures of adherence. Suggestions for best practices, including the use of electronic monitoring devices, for diurnal cortisol collection with maltreating families are provided.

A gloomy picture: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials reveals disappointing effectiveness of programs aiming at preventing child maltreatment.

BackgroundConsistent findings about the effectiveness of parent programs to prevent or reduce child maltreatment are lacking.MethodsIn the present meta-analysis we synthesized findings from 27 independent samples from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on the effectiveness of 20 different intervention programs aimed at (i) preventing the occurrence of child maltreatment in the general population or with at-risk but non-maltreating families, or (ii) reducing the incidence of child maltreatment in maltreating families.ResultsA significant combined effect on maltreatment (d = 0.13; N = 4883) disappeared after the trim-and-fill approach that takes into account publication bias against smaller studies without significant outcomes. However, moderator analyses showed that larger effect sizes were found for more recent studies, studies with smaller samples, programs that provide parent training instead of only support, programs that target maltreating instead of at-risk families, and programs with a moderate length (6–12 months) or a moderate number of sessions (16–30).ConclusionsMore RCTs are needed to further unravel which factors are associated with program effectiveness. Because currently existing programs appeared to only reduce and not prevent child maltreatment, efforts in the field of preventive intervention should also focus on the development and testing of preventive programs for families at risk for child maltreatment.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12889-015-2387-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The effects of child maltreatment and polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter and dopamine D4 receptor genes on infant attachment and intervention efficacy

This investigation examined the extent to which polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter linked promoter region (5-HTTLPR) and the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) genes differentially influenced the development of attachment security and disorganization in maltreated and nonmaltreated infants at age 13 months, and the extent to which the efficacy of preventive interventions to promote attachment security were influenced by genetic variation. The sample consisted of 106 infants from maltreating families, participating in a randomized control trial evaluating the efficacy of two interventions, child-parent psychotherapy and psychoeducational parenting intervention, and 47 infants from nonmaltreating families. DNA samples were genotyped for polymorphisms of 5-HTTLPR, DRD4 exon III variable number tandem repeat, and DRD4-521. Attachment organization at age 1 and at age 2 was assessed with the Strange Situation for all participants, prior to and following the completion of the interventions. High rates of disorganized attachment were observed in the maltreatment compared to the nonmaltreatment group, and both interventions resulted in increased rates of attachment security at age 2. Genetic variation did not influence improvement in attachment organization among maltreated infants. Among maltreated infants, genetic variation had minimal effect on attachment organization. In contrast, among nonmaltreated infants, 5-HTTLPR and DRD4 polymorphisms influenced attachment security and disorganization at age 2 and the stability of attachment disorganization over time.

Mother–child play and maltreatment: A longitudinal analysis of emerging social behavior from infancy to toddlerhood.

Mother-child play of maltreating and nonmaltreating families was analyzed when infants were 12 months old (Time 1), and 2 years old (Time 2), as a context to examine children's developing cognitive and social skills. At Time 1, infants from abusing families demonstrated less independent and more imitative behavior during play than did infants from neglecting and nonmaltreating families, suggesting a delay in emerging social behaviors. In this longitudinal follow-up, mother-child play was reassessed 1 year later (N = 78), with a focus on children's engagement in nonplay and pretend play and on children's abilities to initiate social exchanges and respond to parental requests. Play and social behavior were coded from semistructured and unstructured play paradigms at both time points. Maternal attention-directing behavior and limit setting also was assessed. At Time 2, children from abusing, neglecting, and nonmaltreating families did not differ in cognitive play complexity. However, children from abusing families engaged in less child-initiated play than did children from neglecting and nonmaltreating families, demonstrating less socially competent behavior. Longitudinal analyses revealed child initiated play at Time 2 was negatively associated with abuse and with maternal physical attention directing behavior at Time 1. Child negative reactivity at Time 2 was positively associated with Time 1 maternal physical behavior and child imitation and with Time 2 maternal controlling behavior. Implications for early intervention efforts are emphasized.

Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions

The malleability of insecure and disorganized attachment among infants from maltreating families was investigated through a randomized preventive intervention trial. Findings from research on the effects of maltreatment on infant attachment were incorporated into the design and evaluation of the intervention. One-year-old infants from maltreating families (N = 137) and their mothers were randomly assigned to one of three intervention conditions: (a) infant-parent psychotherapy (IPP), (b) psychoeducational parenting intervention (PPI), and (c) community standard (CS) controls. A fourth group of infants from nonmaltreating families (N = 52) and their mothers served as an additional low-income normative comparison (NC) group. At baseline, mothers in the maltreatment group, relative to the nonmaltreatment group mothers, reported greater abuse and neglect in their own childhoods, more insecure relationships with their own mothers, more maladaptive parenting attitudes, more parenting stress, and lower family support, and they were observed to evince lower maternal sensitivity. Infants in the maltreatment groups had significantly higher rates of disorganized attachment than infants in the NC group. At postintervention follow-up at age 26 months, children in the IPP and PPI groups demonstrated substantial increases in secure attachment, whereas increases in secure attachment were not found for the CS and NC groups. Moreover, disorganized attachment continued to predominate in the CS group. These results were maintained when intent to treat analyses were conducted. The findings are discussed in terms of the utility of translating basic research into the design and evaluation of clinical trials, as well as the importance of preventive interventions for altering attachment organization and promoting an adaptive developmental course for infants in maltreating families.

Mother-child play and emerging social behaviors among infants from maltreating families.

Mother-child play of 12-month-old infants (N=130) from maltreating (N=78) and non-maltreating (N=52) families was analyzed as a context that integrates infants' developing social and cognitive skills. Play was coded from semistructured and unstructured play paradigms. No group differences were found in infants' play maturity. Infants from abusing families demonstrated more imitative play than infants from non-maltreating families, and engaged in less independent play than infants from both neglecting and non-maltreating families, suggesting a delay in emerging social behaviors. Mothers from abusing and non-maltreating families differed in attention directing behaviors. Maternal behaviors predicted child play style variables, but did not mediate the effects of maltreatment. Findings discuss the influence of an early maltreating environment upon the development of the emergent self. Implications for early intervention are underscored.

Psychiatric co-morbidity in caregivers and children involved in maltreatment: a pilot research study with policy implications

Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the lifetime incidence of mental disorders in caregivers involved in maltreatment and in their maltreated child. Methods: Lifetime DSM-III-R and IV psychiatric diagnoses were obtained for 53 maltreating families, including at least one primary caregiver and one proband maltreated child or adolescent subject (28 males, 25 females), and for a comparison group of 46 sociodemographically, similar nonmaltreating families, including one proband healthy child and adolescent subject (22 males, 22 females). Results: Mothers of maltreated children exhibited a significantly greater lifetime incidence of anxiety disorders (especially post-traumatic stress disorder), mood disorders, alcohol and/or substance abuse or dependence disorder, suicide attempts, and comorbidity of two or more psychiatric disorders, compared to control mothers. Natural fathers or mothers’ live-in mates involved in maltreatment exhibited a significantly greater lifetime incidence of an alcohol and/or substance abuse or dependence disorder compared to controls. The majority of maltreated children and adolescents reported anxiety disorders, especially post-traumatic stress disorder (from witnessing domestic violence and/or sexual abuse), mood disorders, suicidal ideation and attempts, and disruptive disorders. Most maltreated children (72%) suffered from comorbidity involving both emotional and behavioral regulation disorders. Conclusions: Families involved in maltreatment manifest significant histories of psychiatric comorbidity. Policies which target identification and treatment of comorbidity may contribute to breaking the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment.

Affective, organizational, and relational characteristics of maltreating families: a systems perspective.

In-home structured interactions of 42 maltreating families (neglect: n = 12; physical abuse: n = 19; sexual abuse: n = 11) and 23 low-income comparison families with preschool-aged children were examined to determine whether maltreating and nonmaltreating families could be distinguished by system-level processes. Coding from videotapes of family interactions yielded ratings for affective, organizational, and relational features of each family unit. Results from family coding demonstrated that sexually abusive families had significantly more difficulties regulating anger, evidenced more chaos and less role clarity, and relied less on adaptive-flexible relationship strategies than nonmaltreating families. The importance of family climate and structure, above and beyond individual maltreatment acts, are high-lighted. Treatment and social policy implications and directions for future research in the family study of child maltreatment are discussed.

Affective, organizational, and relational characteristics of maltreating families: A system's perspective.

In-home structured interactions of 42 maltreating families (neglect: n = 12; physical abuse: n = 19; sexual abuse: n = 11) and 23 low-income comparison families with preschool-aged children were examined to determine whether maltreating and nonmaltreating families could be distinguished by system-level processes. Coding from videotapes of family interactions yielded ratings for affective, organizational, and relational features of each family unit. Results from family coding demonstrated that sexually abusive families had significantly more difficulties regulating anger, evidenced more chaos and less role clarity, and relied less on adaptive-flexible relationship strategies than nonmaltreating families. The importance of family climate and structure, above and beyond individual maltreatment acts, are high-lighted. Treatment and social policy implications and directions for future research in the family study of child maltreatment are discussed.

The influence of partners on parental stress of neglectful mothers

This study aims to test the existence of a specific pattern of maternal perception of partners' participation: that is mothers in neglectful families perceive their partners as (1) less satisfying as a marital partner, (2) more violent, (3) less supporting, and (4) having a less positive relationship with the target child than mothers in low-educated, low socioeconomic but non-maltreating families. The study also aims to estimate the link between this pattern of maternal perception of partners' participation and the level of parental stress of the mothers. The total sample is composed of 48 two-parent families with a target child aged 0–6 years old. Half of the families received treatment by the child protection services for child neglect and the other half were non-maltreating families paired with the neglectful families on sociodemographic variables. The data partially support the first hypothesis: compared to men in non-maltreating families, men in neglectful families are perceived by the mothers as being less adequate marital partners, less supportive and more violent.

The influence of partners on parental stress of neglectful mothers

This study aims to test the existence of a specific pattern of maternal perception of partners' participation: that is mothers in neglectful families perceive their partners as (1) less satisfying as a marital partner, (2) more violent, (3) less supporting, and (4) having a less positive relationship with the target child than mothers in low-educated, low socioeconomic but non-maltreating families. The study also aims to estimate the link between this pattern of maternal perception of partners' participation and the level of parental stress of the mothers. The total sample is composed of 48 two-parent families with a target child aged 0–6 years old. Half of the families received treatment by the child protection services for child neglect and the other half were non-maltreating families paired with the neglectful families on sociodemographic variables. The data partially support the first hypothesis: compared to men in non-maltreating families, men in neglectful families are perceived by the mothers as being less adequate marital partners, less supportive and more violent.

Survey of home visiting programs for abused and neglected children and their families

This study reports on home visitation programs that provide services for abused and neglected children and their families. Data were collected as part of a national survey of home visiting programs. Of the 1,904 programs participating in the survey, 224 had as their primary focus services for children who were abused or neglected. For this group, data are presented on program characteristics, characteristics of home visits, credentials of home visitors, and program documentation procedures. The survey data showed that over 70% of the 224 programs identified social service as their organization affiliation which, in contrast to other providers, offered a broad range of services for the abused or neglected children and their families. The most frequently identified purpose for providing services was the social and emotional development of the child. Parenting skills and parent coping were considered the most important services. Stress management was considered more important by respondents of programs for maltreating families than by those providing services to nonmaltreating families. Approximately half the respondents reported that they required a bachelor's or master's degree for employment. Results are discussed in relation to research and practice implications.

Child maltreatment and vulnerability to depression

AbstractThis investigation explored differences in depressive symptomatology among low-socioeconomic status children aged 7–12 years from abusive (N = 46), neglectful (N = 35), and nonmaltreating (N = 72) homes. Measures of aggression and self-esteem also were included. Children from abusive homes evidenced significantly more depressive symptomatology than children from either neglectful or nonmaltreating families. Additionally, children from physically abusive homes exhibited lower self-esteem than did nonmaltreated children. While significant differences among groups on aggression did not emerge, all groups evidenced higher levels of acting out behaviors than would be expected in a nonclinic group of children. Results were discussed in terms of the effects of physical abuse on depression and the importance of intervening to prevent the deleterious effects of abuse. Additionally, the impact of neglect and poverty status on the presence of aggression was discussed.

Child Maltreatment: An Analysis of Familial and Institutional Predictors

THE purpose of this paper is to identify familial and institutional predictors of child maltreatment. Interrelationships between timing of first childbearing, presence of social disorganization within the family, the availability of family and institutional supports, and the incidence of child maltreatment are examined for fifty maltreating and fifty nonmaltreating families drawn from social service case histories in rural North Carolina. While child maltreatment was not associated with early parenting or lack of potential family social support, a strong relationship was found between the likelihood of child maltreatment and the family's degree of social disorganization and their amount of social service utilization. The study unvariables explained 59% of the variance in child maltreatment. A log linear analysis was performed to determine the interactive influence of the two most important predictors of child maltreatment: level of social disorganization and social service utilization. Recommendations for the identification and treatment of families at high risk are suggested.