Non-lethal Management Research Articles

Male dingo urinary scents code for age class and wild dingoes respond to this information.

Chemical information in canid urine has been implicated in territoriality and influences the spacing of individuals. We identified the key volatile organic compound (VOC) components in dingo (Canis lupus dingo) urine and investigated the potential role of scents in territorial spacing. VOC analysis, using headspace gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), demonstrated that the information in fresh urine from adult male dingoes was sufficient to allow statistical classification into age categories. Discriminant function analyses demonstrated that the relative amounts or combinations of key VOCs from pre-prime (3-4 years), prime (5-9 years), and post-prime (≥10 years) males varied between these age categories, and that scents exposed to the environment for 4 (but not 33) days could still be classified to age categories. Further, a field experiment showed that dingoes spent less time in the vicinity of prime male dingo scents than other scents. Collectively, these results indicate that age-related scent differences may be discriminable by dingoes. Previous authors have suggested the potential to use scent as a management tool for wild canids by creating an artificial territorial boundary/barrier. Our results suggest that identifying the specific signals in prime-age male scents could facilitate the development of scent-based tools for non-lethal management.

Behavioral responses of Canada geese to winter harassment in the context of human‐wildlife conflicts

AbstractWildlife harassment (i.e., intentional disturbance by humans) is a common nonlethal management approach employed to reduce human‐wildlife conflicts, but effectiveness is often undocumented or uncertain. We evaluated the effect of harassment on Canada goose (Branta canadensis) behavior in an urban area during winter. Winter can be a challenging period for waterfowl given limited food availability and greater thermoregulatory costs; thus, we expected that harassment in winter may be more effective than during other portions of the year. We used GPS transmitters equipped with accelerometers to evaluate the effects of harassment, weather conditions, and breeding origin location on goose movements, land cover use, emigration, survival, and behavior. Harassment caused geese to leave the harassment site more often (3.5 times) than on days when not harassed, but geese returned quickly after harassment (1.9 times) than without harassment. Harassment of geese affected specific goose behaviors (foraging, resting, flying, and alert), but effects of harassment were relatively small compared to the effects of weather conditions. Changes in land cover use were impacted by weather conditions, independent of harassment. Our findings suggest that harassment was ineffective at significantly changing site use or behaviors of geese and repeated harassment had diminishing returns. Geese moved to specific land cover resources that serve as sanctuaries (e.g., open waterbodies) during periods of extreme cold to engage in energetically conservative behaviors (i.e., resting). Harassing geese in areas that provide sanctuary during extreme cold periods or the use of lethal management in coordination with targeted harassment may be more effective than harassment alone in urban areas.

White rhinos and other herbivores decrease visitations and increase vigilance in response to human vocalizations

Abstract Harnessing the fear animals have of humans has the potential to aid in the conservation of wildlife. Most vertebrates perceive humans as “super predators.” While predator cues are an important nonlethal management tool, the use of human cues for management has rarely been implemented or experimentally tested. Extensive poaching is threatening the persistence of white rhinos (Ceratotherium simum simum), and there is a need to deter them from areas with elevated poaching risks. To investigate the feasibility of harnessing the fear white rhinos have of humans to aid in their conservation, we conducted playback experiments at rhino middens. We broadcasted repeated human (treatment) and bird (control) vocalizations, and measured changes in visitations and antipredator responses. We found that overall rhino visitations did not change in response to controls but decreased by 46% in response to human vocalizations. This pattern appears to be driven by the response of females, who decreased their visitations by 70% in response to human vocalizations, while visitations by males remained unchanged. This difference is likely related to males defending small exclusive territories. Providing evidence that changes in female visitation rates were a function of the perceived fear of white rhinos, we found that both sexes exhibited more vigilance in response to human vocalizations (males 69.5%, females 96%) compared to controls. We also saw a 63% reduction of other herbivores at treatment sites. Our findings provide evidence that the fear of humans can be used to alter the movements and behavior of female white rhinos, critical for population recovery, as well as other large herbivores.

Effectiveness of interventions for managing human-large carnivore conflicts worldwide: Scare them off, don't remove them

Human-wildlife conflicts are associated with a threat to large carnivores, as well as with economic and social costs, thus challenging conservation management around the world. In this study, we explored the effectiveness of common management interventions used worldwide for the purpose of conflict reduction using an evidence-based framework combining expert assessment of intervention effectiveness, impact and uncertainty of assessment. We first conducted a literature review of human-large carnivore conflicts across the world. Based on this review, we identified three main types of management interventions (non-lethal, translocations, and lethal management) and we assessed their effectiveness. Our review indicates that, although the characteristics of conflicts with large carnivores are heavily influenced by the local context and the species, the main issues are depredation on livestock, space-sharing, and attacks on humans. Non-lethal interventions are more likely to reduce conflict, whereas translocations and lethal interventions are mostly ineffective and/or harmful to carnivore populations, without fostering successful long-term coexistence. The literature on conflict management is often imprecise and lacks consistency between studies or situations, which generally makes comparisons difficult. Our protocol allows for the reliable comparison of experiments characterized by heterogeneous standards, response variables, protocols, and quality of evidence. Nevertheless, we encourage the use of systematic protocols with common good standards in order to provide more reliable empirical evidence. This would clarify the relative effectiveness of conflict management strategies and contribute to the global reduction in the occurrence of human-large carnivore conflicts across the world.

Concentration-response of an anthraquinone-based repellent for raccoons (Procyon lotor)

Wildlife repellents can be part of non-lethal management strategies to reduce the negative impacts of wildlife to property, agricultural production, and human health and safety. Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are associated with negative impacts in all three of these areas. Anthraquinone is a useful avian repellent and its utility as a mammalian repellent is still being explored. Our objective was to evaluate laboratory efficacy of an anthraquinone-based repellent for raccoons using different concentrations. We fed captive raccoons whole corn treated at 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% anthraquinone and examined their behavioral response related to feeding repellency including consumption and change in duration related to approach, interaction and extended interaction with the feed bowl. Feeding repellency was 26–37% for whole corn treated with 0.5–1.5% anthraquinone and 71% for whole corn treated with 2% anthraquinone. Interaction duration among the treatments varied (p = 0.005) with a longer interaction duration with the food bowl at 2% anthraquinone compared to 0.5% anthraquinone. However, the addition of anthraquinone did not significantly alter behaviors of approach, interaction, or extended interaction between pretreatment and treatment for the raccoons within treatments. The decreases in consumption that we observed warrant development of further research and field evaluation regarding anthraquinone as a deterrent with raccoons or to repel vertebrate competitors from raccoon specific baits.

The fox in the box: acoustic deterrent and simulated predator disturbance to reduce problematic bird accumulations

Context Collisions between birds and aircraft (bird strikes) are a serious threat to aviation safety and these negative human–wildlife interactions are predicted to increase. As the wider spatial use of landscapes by birds can affect aviation safety (e.g. location of foraging and roosting sites), there is a clear need to implement effective management strategies at sites adjacent to airfields to reduce ingress of avian taxa across airfield boundaries. Aims In the present study, we assessed the efficacy of both an acoustic deterrent (sonic net) and a visual simulated predator effigy, in the form of a fox-shaped model, to disturb and reduce bird accumulations on: (1) agricultural foraging sites; (2) an active airfield; and (3) problematic roof-top roosts. Methods These non-lethal scare technologies were assessed separately and in combination by using a factorial design. Bird abundances, species richness and behavioural changes were considered. Key results Although the scare technologies did not reduce bird species richness at treated sites, in most cases, a significant reduction in bird abundances was observed. Equally, the number of birds observed to forage or roost was also generally significantly reduced, as was time spent by birds within treated sites. However, the effects of treatments were not universally across species. For example, a reduction in the abundance of gulls tended to be paired with an increase in the number of corvids for foraging sites. Nevertheless, the combined application of the sonic net and fox effigy caused a considerable reduction in foraging bird numbers, whereas singular treatment types appear to work best for roof-top roosts. Data also indicate that the sonic-net technology can be used to deter night-time roosting on an active airfield. Conclusions When taken together, treatments resulted in substantial and often significant reductions in bird abundance, foraging and roosting activity, as well as site residency time. However, treatment efficacy tended to be context and taxon specific. Implications Sonic net and mobile simulated predator effigies represent promising experimental scare technologies. Following further testing, the integration of these technologies into bird management interventions could yield substantial risk reductions for bird strikes, as well as improved non-lethal management of problematic roosting and nesting sites.

Socioecology Explains Individual Variation in Urban Space Use in Response to Management in Cape Chacma Baboons (Papio ursinus)

The presence of wildlife adjacent to and within urban spaces is a growing phenomenon globally. When wildlife’s presence in urban spaces has negative impacts for people and wildlife, nonlethal and lethal interventions on animals invariably result. Recent evidence suggests that individuals in wild animal populations vary in both their propensity to use urban space and their response to nonlethal management methods. Understanding such interindividual differences and the drivers of urban space use could help inform management strategies. We use direct observation and high-resolution GPS (1 Hz) to track the space use of 13 adult individuals in a group of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) living at the urban edge in Cape Town, South Africa. The group is managed by a dedicated team of field rangers, who use aversive conditioning to reduce the time spent by the group in urban spaces. Adult males are larger, more assertive, and more inclined to enter houses, and as such are disproportionately subject to “last resort” lethal management. Field rangers therefore focus efforts on curbing the movements of adult males, which, together with high-ranking females and their offspring, comprise the bulk of the group. However, our results reveal that this focus allows low-ranking, socially peripheral female baboons greater access to urban spaces. We suggest that movement of these females into urban spaces, alone or in small groups, is an adaptive response to management interventions, especially given that they have no natural predators. These results highlight the importance of conducting behavioral studies in conjunction with wildlife management, to ensure effective mitigation techniques.

Ranchers' Perspectives on Participating in Non-lethal Wolf-Livestock Coexistence Strategies

Potential impacts to rural livelihoods by large carnivores, such as gray wolves (Canis lupus), increase economic liability and fear among residents, resulting in social conflicts over wildlife issues. Strategies have been developed to promote non-lethal predator management in rural communities, but there is limited understanding of why ranchers choose to participate in such programs. We conducted semi-structured interviews (n= 45) of ranchers in Washington state, United States, asking open-ended questions to explore their perspectives on conflict mitigation. Interviews were analyzed using Grounded Theory. Ranchers mentioned five broad types of mitigation strategies: state agency intervention (i.e., calling the state agency in charge of wolf management to request either compensation or lethal wolf removal), biological measures (e.g., use of guard animals), physical measures (e.g., fences), human interference (cowboys and cowgirls), and indirect measures (e.g., husbandry practices). Motivations for participating in non-lethal mitigation strategies included previous positive interactions with wildlife agency officials, an understanding of the importance of wolves to the ecosystem, and clearly outlined guidelines on how to deal with wolf interactions. Barriers that hindered rancher participation included disdain for regulation both regarding the Endangered Species Act and the state's requirements for accessing damage compensation, which were perceived to be extensive and over-reaching. Negative attitudes toward wolf recovery included fear of wolves and perceived damage that wolves inflict on rural lives and livelihoods. Ranchers' motivations and perceived barriers for participating in mitigation strategies included sociopolitical and economic factors. Thus, we suggest that in addition to mitigating economic loss, wildlife managers address the intangible social costs that deter ranchers' participation in mitigation strategies through continued dialogue.

Ovariectomy As a Management Technique for Suburban Deer Populations

ABSTRACTOverabundant suburban deer (Odocoileus spp.) are a source of human‐wildlife conflict in many communities throughout the United States. Deer‐vehicle collisions, impacts to local vegetation, tick‐borne pathogens, and other negative interactions are typical reasons cited for initiating deer management programs. Social attitudes, legal constraints, and perceived safety concerns lead many communities to examine nonlethal management options. Surgical sterilization is currently the only nonlethal method available to permanently sterilize females with a single treatment. However, there are limited data demonstrating methods and outcomes in management programs that sterilize a high percentage (>90%) of local populations of females, particularly regarding the impact of immigration on non‐isolated populations. We present data from 6 surgical sterilization sites with geographically open populations in California, Maryland, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Virginia, USA. From 2012 to 2020 we sterilized 493 deer, primarily via ovariectomy, and conducted annual or periodic population estimates using camera surveys, road‐based distance sampling, and intensive field observations to assess population trends. Study sites ranged from 1.2 km2 to 16.5 km2 with ~47–169 individuals, resulting in approximate densities of 6–63 deer/km2. For all sites we noted an average reduction of ~26% (17%–36%) from Year 1 to Year 2. Four years after initial treatment, we documented an average population reduction of ~45% (29%–56%). During the first year, the average cost per deer sterilized at locations where bait was used was US$1,185 ($927–$1,572). Surgical sterilization projects demonstrate that significant reductions in local deer densities using high‐percentage, surgical sterilization programs can be achieved in non‐insular locations, where baited deer are approachable by vehicle for darting. Sustained sterilization efforts may be necessary, as is the case with all deer management programs, in areas where immigration is possible, and all the animals are not sterilized. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.

Recreationist perceptions of lethal and non-lethal management of sharks in two of South Africa’s marine areas

Despite growing public pressure to use non-lethal strategies for managing predators (e.g., sharks) in marine ecosystems, the response of many governments remains largely lethal. This article examined recreationist support and understanding of approaches for managing sharks in two of South Africa’s marine areas. Questionnaires completed by 575 ocean recreationists at beaches near Cape Town and Durban showed they strongly disagreed with lethal management of sharks. The non-lethal Shark Spotters program was the most strongly supported strategy, followed by heat sensor cameras to detect sharks. Other non-lethal strategies (exclusion nets, personal repellent devices, deterrent cables, camouflage wetsuits) were supported by fewer than 50% of respondents, but were still more strongly supported than specific lethal strategies (shark hunts, drumlines, shark nets). Shark Spotters was more strongly supported near Cape Town, whereas the lethal strategies and a few of the other non-lethal approaches (personal electric repellent devices, electric deterrent cables, exclusion nets) were more strongly supported near Durban. Few respondents understood that shark nets and drumlines are designed to catch and kill large sharks. Understanding the function of shark nets correlated negatively with support for their use and positively with support for temporary exclusion nets. Implications of these results were discussed within the framework of a global transition from lethal to non-lethal management.

Wildlife-Friendly Livestock Management Promotes Mammalian Biodiversity Recovery on a Semi-Arid Karoo Farm in South Africa

Agriculture is an essential production system used to feed the growing human population, but at the same time has become a major driver of biodiversity loss and environmental degradation. Employing production methods that restore degraded landscapes can have a positive impact on biodiversity, whilst improving food production. We assessed how mammalian biodiversity, specifically richness and their relative abundances varied on five Karoo farms in South Africa that had been amalgamated and subjected to a transition from traditional livestock grazing techniques (sporadic rotational grazing and lethal predator control) to wildlife-friendly non-lethal predator management, using human shepherding of livestock under a high-density short-duration grazing regime. We used camera trap data collected over a 4-year period, to measure mammalian species richness, distribution and relative abundance on the wildlife-friendly farm to investigate temporal changes throughout the conversion from traditional farming practices. In the last year of the study (2019) additional cameras were used to provide a spatial comparison of mammalian species on the wildlife-friendly farm to two neighboring farms, a traditional livestock farm using lethal predator controls, and a game farm. We found that mammalian species richness increased year on year resulting in a significant increase of 24% over the duration of the study. Herbivores showed an increase of 33% in the number of species detected over the years, while predator species increased by 8%. The relative abundance and distribution of most species also showed increases as the conversion process took place. For example, 73% of the herbivore species detected throughout the study increased in their relative abundance. Similarly, 67% of all species showed an increase in the number of sites occupied over the years. In the final year of the study the wildlife-friendly farm had more mammalian species compared to the game farm and traditional livestock farm, with the latter two sites having a similar number of species when compared to the commencement of the conversion of the wildlife-friendly site. These broad improvements in mammalian biodiversity demonstrate that livestock production can benefit local mammalian biodiversity through a combination of herder grazing management and wildlife-friendly farming.

A Theory of Change for promoting coexistence between dingoes and livestock production

AbstractAchieving conservation goals, such as coexistence between wildlife and humans, requires an evidence‐based understanding of the factors that shape conservation contexts. For addressing conflict between humans and wildlife, this means understanding the barriers and opportunities to changing human behaviors toward wildlife. Here, we develop a Theory of Change (ToC) to promote coexistence between livestock producers and dingoes in Australia. The ToC is based on behavior change principles and interdisciplinary research identifying four key stakeholder groups who may influence dingo management. It employs four overlapping strategies to address these barriers: (a) a media campaign to promote public awareness of dingo management practices, which may result in pressure upon governments to restrict lethal control; (b) promoting more inclusive decision‐making processes, specifically including Aboriginal Australians; (c) monitoring and evaluation of the effects of dingo management on livestock and ecosystems to identify opportunities for nonlethal dingo management; (d) campaign to encourage adoption of nonlethal management methods by livestock producers based on an understanding of sociopsychological factors that shape behaviors. The framework is a tool for conservation advocates and policymakers to implement and monitor change that facilitates both wildlife conservation and thriving rural communities.

Co-existing with dingoes: Challenges and solutions to implementing non-lethal management

Where wild carnivores such as the Australian dingo interact with and impact on livestock enterprises, lethal control and landscape-scale exclusion are commonly employed. However, interest in alternative non-lethal management approaches has recently increased. This is evidenced by several reviews of non-lethal methods that can be said to be working toward improved coexistence. Nevertheless, and despite centuries of conflict, our non-lethal human-wildlife coexistence toolkit remains remarkably deficient. Innovation and evaluation of non-lethal methods should be prioritised to ensure that the economic, ecological, cultural and intrinsic values of dingoes are retained, while minimising the economic and emotional costs of conflict with livestock producers. In this paper we summarise some of the practical tools that might be effective in relation to the dingo, particularly those yet to be formally investigated, and discuss some of the possible hurdles to implementation. We conclude by suggesting pathways for human-dingo coexistence, and the steps necessary for appropriately evaluating non-lethal tools.

The important role of private wildlife organisations in facilitating scientific research: A case study of the Australian Dingo Foundation

As we enter an era of global mass extinctions, it is important to tackle wildlife research and conservation from multiple fronts, including those made available by wildlife organisations, zoos and sanctuaries. Captive studies are particularly useful when studying free-ranging populations is difficult, and/or when controlled conditions are required. Yet, despite the significant role that they play in supporting research and conservation of species and ecosystems, they are rarely recognised in the scientific literature. Here we present a case study of the Australian Dingo Foundation (ADF), a private organisation and captive breeding facility that actively supports research and conservation efforts relating to the dingo (Canis dingo). Over the past decade (2010 to 2020), the ADF has facilitated research across eight research disciplines that include archaeology, behaviour, biology, cognition, evolutionary psychology, non-lethal management, reproduction and parental behaviour, and vocalisations. This has resulted in at least 21 published scientific studies which are summarised in this paper. As this case study demonstrates, captive facilities have the potential to contribute to the understanding and conservation of dingoes by providing practical alternatives to, and/or supplement studies of free-ranging populations. We conclude by outlining some of the implications and limitations of conducting research using captive dingo populations.

Tourist intentions to donate to non-lethal feral cat management at a potential natural World Heritage site in Japan

ABSTRACT Feral cat management needs cooperation, including financial support, from a variety of stakeholders. We used a payment card approach to investigate the willingness of tourists to donate to non-lethal feral cat management at a potential natural World Heritage site on Amami Oshima Island in Japan. We found that more than 80% of tourists intended to donate funds to non-lethal feral cat management, and the mean willingness to donate was about USD $14 (1374.1 JPY). The rate of participation in the donation was higher than that found in previous studies, and the amount of intention to donate was large enough to support non-lethal cat management. Respondent income and attitudes toward lethal options affected intentions to donate. Those who valued the island farmland also had a higher intention to donate. Our findings provide useful information for the implementation of feral cat management strategies to conserve biodiversity while minimizing conflict.

Nonlethal management of baboons on the urban edge of a large metropole.

The transformation of natural land for agricultural and urban use has displaced baboons from large parts of their historical distribution. Abundant resources within transformed areas, however, continue to attract baboons back into these human-dominated areas resulting in chronic levels of conflict throughout much of Africa. In the city of Cape Town, chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) have been raiding human-derived foods for over 200 years. In the last 20 years, the management of this conflict has shifted from predominantly lethal to nonlethal methods. In this study, we assess the success of field rangers to deter baboons from urban areas and investigate whether such management affects the diet and activity patterns of baboons. We opportunistically sampled baboon behavior and movement when field rangers were temporarily absent from managed troops in 2008. We also compared the intensity of baboon management by comparing one troop on days when the field rangers aggressively herded the troop away from the urban edge versus passively monitored them in 2004/2005. Our results reveal that when field rangers were absent, the two troops spent 70% and 80% of their time within the urban edge compared to 3% and 19% when they were present. Both troops also consumed more human-derived foods when field rangers were absent. There was no significant change in the activity budget or daily distance traveled for either troop with and without field rangers. The intensity of herding did have an impact on baboon activity and high levels of herding significantly reduced time spent feeding and increased time spent traveling, socializing, and resting. Habitat use and dietary composition did not differ between high- and low-herding days. Our results suggest that field rangers are a successful nonlethal method for reducing spatial overlap between baboons and urban areas but that intensive, unsystematic herding of the troop does have measurable impacts on behavior and should be prevented.

Efficacy of motion-activated sprinklers as a humane deterrent for urban coyotes

ABSTRACT Non-lethal management methods for urban coyotes are limited despite an increase in human-coyote conflicts in North American cities. Deterrent devices are recommended to reduce human-coyote conflict; however, no scientific studies have assessed the efficacy of deterrents with urban coyotes. This article investigated the short-term efficacy of motion-activated sprinklers for deterring urban coyotes from residential areas in the Metro Vancouver Regional District of British Columbia. Camera traps were used to monitor coyote activity over three consecutive phases: pre-deterrent, deterrent, and post-deterrent. Sprinklers significantly reduced the daily mean number of coyote visits during the deterrent phase compared to the pre-deterrent phase. There were no significant differences in the daily mean number of coyote visits between the pre-deterrent and post-deterrent phases, however mean duration of visits significantly decreased. This article offers evidence that sprinklers may reduce the presence of coyotes in residential areas, thereby encouraging future research into the development and implementation of humane deterrents for urban coyotes.

Understanding stakeholder preferences for managing red foxes in different situations

BackgroundRed foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have historically been interacting with human societies, thus being an important component of socio-ecological systems. In Greece, farmers and hunters have been increasingly complaining about predation of red foxes on livestock and game, and the recurrence of rabies incidents has raised concerns about human and animal health. Understanding public preferences about management is necessary for successful wildlife management. This study aimed at investigating the preferences of north Greece residents for managing the negative impacts of red foxes and also at understanding variation between stakeholder groups: farmers, hunters, farmers-hunters, and the general public. Data were collected from on-site face-to-face surveys (n = 746), between March and May 2017. Respondents were asked to rate their acceptability of management strategies under three impact scenarios: red foxes attack livestock, reduce game, and carry rabies.ResultsStakeholders preferred nonlethal management strategies, with generally high consensus, both between and within groups. Fencing and compensation were the most acceptable strategies for protecting livestock and vaccination and the removal of sick animals for eliminating rabies. Acceptability and consensus for lethal strategies were lower, with hunting being the most acceptable lethal strategy for hunters, especially when foxes threatened game or carried rabies. Doing nothing was becoming more unacceptable and lethal control more acceptable with increasing severity of the impacts, i.e., livestock and game predation versus rabies transmission.ConclusionsVariation in the acceptability of and consensus for management strategies was considerable among scenarios, and both between and within stakeholder groups. Research implications could be used as a guide for reaching consensus for proper management strategies during the conservation conflict management process in the study area. As similar studies are scarce, findings might also prove useful elsewhere, especially in the northern hemisphere where native populations do occur. Findings about managing rabid red foxes would be particularly useful for countries where rabies has not been eliminated, particularly for neighboring Balkan and Asia Minor countries. Findings about managing red fox impacts on livestock and game would be most useful for European countries and especially Mediterranean countries with social and ecological conditions similar to Greece.

Interactions with humans shape coyote responses to hazing

Medium and large carnivores coexist with people in urban areas globally, occasionally resulting in negative interactions that prompt questions about how to reduce human-wildlife conflict. Hazing, i.e., scaring wildlife, is frequently promoted as an important non-lethal means for urbanites to reduce conflict but there is limited scientific evidence for its efficacy. We used a population of captive coyotes (Canis latrans) to simulate urban human-coyote interactions and subsequent effects of hazing on coyote behavior. Past experiences with humans significantly affected the number of times a coyote approached a human to necessitate hazing. Coyotes that had been hand fed by adults had to be more frequently hazed than coyotes with other or no past experiences with adults. Past experience with children had no impact on the number of hazing events. The number of times a coyote approached an adult or child was reduced across days based on the accumulative number of times hazed, suggesting coyotes learn to avoid behaviors warranting hazing and that this could be used as a non-lethal management tool. However, prior experience and whether the interaction is with an adult or child can alter the outcomes of hazing and must be considered in determining the efficacy of hazing programs.

Implementing Nonlethal Solutions for Free-Roaming Cat Management in a County in the Southeastern United States.

From 2006 to 2017, stray or free-roaming cats ranged from 35 to 54% of all animals going into the public shelter in Hillsborough County, Florida. Shelter overcrowding of cats, including free-roaming, feral, or community cats, is a major problem in parts of the world. Issues with free-roaming cats include the welfare of the cats themselves, public health and zoonotic diseases, spread of diseases to other species or pet cats, public nuisance, and predation of wildlife. Animal control is a government function and ultimately a taxpayer issue. This paper describes three methods of humane, nonlethal management of free-roaming cat populations that were successfully applied in Hillsborough County, Florida: low-income spay/neuter vouchers; small- and large-scale trap, neuter, vaccinate, and return (TNVR); and return to field (RTF). The methods used were contrary to the long-accepted practice of using euthanasia to control cat populations and generated opposition among certain stakeholders. While the human population of the county increased by 14.6% from 2010 to 2017, the methods used to control free-roaming cats assisted in achieving a 51% decrease in intake since 2007 and increased the live-release rate to 81.8% of cats taken in at the Pet Resources Center in 2017. This paper examines how this change in intake was achieved despite opposition to these programs.