Nonconsumptive Recreation Research Articles

Trucks versus treks: The relative influence of motorized versus nonmotorized recreation on a mammal community.

Outdoor recreation is increasing rapidly on public lands, with potential consequences for wildlife communities. Recreation can induce shifts in wildlife activity and habitat use, but responses vary widely even within the same species, suggesting mitigating factors that remain poorly understood. Both the type of recreation-motorized or nonmotorized-and the distance of wildlife from human disturbance may be important in developing a general understanding of recreation impacts on wildlife and making more informed management decisions. We conducted a camera-trapping survey in the Colville National Forest (CNF) of northeastern Washington in the summers of 2019 and 2020. We collected ~11,000 trap nights of spatially extensive data on nine mid-large mammalian species, simultaneously recording the presence and activity patterns of motorized (primarily vehicles on roads) and nonmotorized (primarily hikers on trails) recreation and wildlife both along trails and roads and off trails and off roads (away from most recreation). We used diel overlap analysis, time lag analysis, and single-season single-species occupancy modeling to examine the impact of recreation on the focal species. Species temporally avoided recreationists either by shifting to more nocturnal hours or delaying return to recently used recreation sites. Most species also responded spatially by altering the use or the intensity of use of camera sites due to recreation, although both positive and negative associations with recreation were documented. Species responded to nonmotorized recreation (e.g., hikers on trails) more often than motorized recreation (e.g., vehicles on roads). Most effects of recreation extended off the trail or road, although in three instances the spatiotemporal response of species to recreation along trails/roads disappeared a short distance away from those features. Our work suggests that a better understanding of landscape-scale impacts of recreation, including fitness consequences, will require additional work to disentangle the effects of different types of recreation and estimate the effective distance at which wildlife responds. Moreover, these results suggest that quiet, nonconsumptive recreation may warrant increased attention from land managers given its potential to influence the spatiotemporal ecology of numerous species.

A Process-Oriented Model of Decision-Making toward Landscape-Scale Prescribed Fire Implementation in the Southern Great Plains, USA

In this investigation, we developed a model of the psychological drivers of landowners' decisions to implement prescribed fire on their properties. The Southern Great Plains in the USA evolved with fire and prescribed fire is an important management tool aimed at maintaining and enhancing ecological and economic resilience in the region. The conceptualized model is reflective of a decision-making paradigm that considers decision making to be a process inclusive of a variety of factors and their inter-relationships to arrive at judgments on whether or not to utilize prescribed fire. The approach considered a spectrum of inputs, obstacles, and their associations to capture the complexity of decision making that is often lost when modeling single factors in dynamic social-ecological settings. Further, we considered the decision to use prescribed fire as a multifactor process that incorporates not only individual barriers to fire implementation but inter-barrier associations and other inputs (e.g., sociodemographic variables). Path analysis revealed five statistically significant relationships within the hypothesized model. For prescribed fire decision making, women tended to be more analytical whereas men were more inclined to rely on heuristics. Additionally, those who indicated owning their property for non-consumptive recreation-related reasons were also more inclined to rely upon heuristics. Texans reported more experience with prescribed fire as did respondents who indicated owning property for livestock product. Alternately, those owning their property for an investment and non-consumptive recreation opportunities reported less experience with prescribed fire. Last, ownership for crop and livestock production was positively associated with past wildfire experience. Findings have implications for three issue areas: (1) the provision of an evolved conceptualization through which prescribed fire implementation decisions can be examined, (2) enhancing the approach of prescribed fire outreach to a changing landowner population, and (3) improving the content and delivery of prescribed fire education efforts.

Recreation effects on wildlife: a review of potential quantitative thresholds

Outdoor recreation is increasingly recognised for its deleterious effects on wildlife individuals and populations. However, planners and natural resource managers lack robust scientific recommendations for the design of recreation infrastructure and management of recreation activities. We reviewed 38 years of research on the effect of non-consumptive recreation on wildlife to attempt to identify effect thresholds or the point at which recreation begins to exhibit behavioural or physiological change to wildlife. We found that 53 of 330 articles identified a quantitative threshold. The majority of threshold articles focused on bird or mammal species and measured the distance to people or to a trail. Threshold distances varied substantially within and amongst taxonomic groups. Threshold distances for wading and passerine birds were generally less than 100 m, whereas they were greater than 400 m for hawks and eagles. Mammal threshold distances varied widely from 50 m for small rodents to 1,000 m for large ungulates. We did not find a significant difference between threshold distances of different recreation activity groups, likely based in part on low sample size. There were large gaps in scientific literature regarding several recreation variables and taxonomic groups including amphibians, invertebrates and reptiles. Our findings exhibit the need for studies to measure continuous variables of recreation extent and magnitude, not only to detect effects of recreation on wildlife, but also to identify effect thresholds when and where recreation begins or ceases to affect wildlife. Such considerations in studies of recreation ecology could provide robust scientific recommendations for planners and natural resource managers for the design of recreation infrastructure and management of recreation activities.

Recreation-related disturbance to wildlife in California—better planning for and management of recreation are vital to conserve wildlife in protected areas where recreation occurs

Expanding levels of authorized and unauthorized non-consumptive recreation increasingly threaten sensitive biological resources in areas protected primarily or solely to conserve them. As California’s human population grows, recreational use in protected areas grows commensurately. The majority of the documented effects on wildlife from non-consumptive recreation are negative; they include detrimental changes in behavior, reproduction, growth, immune system function, levels of stress hormones, and finally, to the survival of individual animals and persistence of wildlife populations and communities. This paper provides insights from the recreation ecology literature into these recreation-related disturbances to insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals from hiking, jogging, biking, horseback riding, boating, and off-highway/ all-terrain vehicles. The documented evidence of these disturbances to wildlife reveals the flaw in the prevalent assumption that recreation is compatible with biological conservation, the dual-role protected areas’ core function. This assumption usually rests on the expectations of (1) allowing only ecologically sound siting of recreational areas and ecologically acceptable types, levels, and timing of recreation, and (2) providing sufficient monitoring, management, and enforcement of recreation to ensure the perpetuation of viable populations of focal sensitive species. However, it is rare that these expectations are met. The ultimate essential outcome of the information provided in this paper is the cessation of the extant recreation-related exploitation of dual-role protected areas. This calls for a societal course change involving: widespread, long-term, and continual multimedia dissemination of the science-based information about recreation-related disturbance to wildlife; application of a science-based approach to siting recreational areas and allowing only ecologically acceptable types, levels, and timing of recreation; and, perpetual personnel and funding explicitly for management at levels commensurate with recreational pressure. These measures would also improve the often cited economic, educational, and recreational/health benefits of dual-role protected areas.

A review of trail-related fragmentation, unauthorized trails, and other aspects of recreation ecology in protected areas

Expanding levels of authorized and unauthorized non-consumptive recreation increasingly threaten sensitive biological resources in areas protected primarily or solely to conserve them. The majority of the documented effects on wildlife from non-consumptive recreation are negative. From a review of 84 papers in the recreation ecology literature about the effects of recreation on wildlife, the following topics emerged as warranting full consideration: trail-related internal fragmentation and expansion of the effect zone; the proliferation and use of unauthorized trails; disturbance thresholds; population-level effects; distinguishing facets of mountain biking; interpretation of observed behavioral responses by wildlife to recreation; magnitude and duration of responses; comparisons of effects among types of recreation and of results among studies; cumulative and synergistic effects; habituation; and the complexity of recreation ecology. Knowledge of these topics must inform efforts to cease the extant recreationrelated exploitation of protected areas and to prevent it in the future. These efforts include: securing urgently needed perpetual monitoring, management, and enforcement commensurate with recreational pressure in dual-role protected areas to ensure the perpetuation of viable populations of focal sensitive species; preventing further use and proliferation of unauthorized trails; restoring areas damaged by inappropriate trails (i.e., unauthorized trails, unnecessarily redundant designated trails, and trails to be decommissioned); using science-based disturbance thresholds to develop management measures for recreation; using the best available science to guide all policy and decision-making about (1) the siting, design, and alignment of trails, and (2) the types, levels, and timing of recreation under consideration; and, planning separate protected areas and recreational areas in the future.

An assessment of non-consumptive recreation effects on wildlife: current and future research, management implications, and next steps

Most research on the effects of non-consumptive recreation on wildlife to date has focused on birds and mammals. This research typically focuses on behavioral responses of individuals despite practical limitations in extrapolating ecological outcomes from individual behavior. Data gaps therefore present difficulties in integrating wildlife-protective policies into public access management. These gaps are exacerbated by a lack of wildlife studies that include data on public use patterns of open space areas. In a survey of park and open space managers in the San Francisco Bay Area, few of the entities surveyed restricted recreational access permanently or seasonally to address biological constraints; yet most indicated the presence of sensitive plant or animal species on their lands or stated conservation as one of their organization’s purposes. To better bridge the gap between research and management practice, more research is needed on species beyond birds and mammals. This research should extend beyond noting behavioral response and should integrate investigation of outdoor recreation use patterns.

Proactive Planning for Recreation on Protected Lands-Wildlife Management Areas in New Jersey

Individual states in the US protect lands for wildlife conservation and recreation. These state lands, often known as Wildlife Management Areas, have historically been used for consumptive recreational activities such as hunting and fishing. Today, states must consider how to appropriately manage these lands. In the State of New Jersey, we surveyed 4,198 users on-site, at WMAs, to determine their primary recreation activity, their demographics, and their willingness to pay for access to and management of these lands. Our findings indicate that there are more users participating in non-consumptive recreation activities and are willing to pay approximately $15 annually to use these WMA lands. Furthermore, many user groups are underrepresented. We recommend increasing outreach to these populations, developing a non-consumptive fee/donation system similar to existing programs in other states, and considering a management strategy that specifically targets seasonal and site use restrictions to avoid recreation conflicts.

Exploring the effects of non-consumptive recreation, trail use, and environmental factors on state park avian biodiversity

State parks serve an important dual role in conservation by balancing wildlife management and recreation activities by park visitors. However, research in recreation ecology on the collective impacts of non-consumptive recreation, environmental factors, and trail design has been sparse. We modeled the influences of non-consumptive trail use, vegetation communities, habitat structure, climate, and trail design on avian communities in four Arkansas State parks. Our results suggested that non-consumptive trail use, environmental factors, and trail design may have collective influences on avian communities. Trailside vegetation structure and aspects of trail design had stronger effects on park avian communities than non-consumptive trail use. Our findings suggest that trail design and environmental factors may play a larger role in shaping avian communities in areas where non-consumptive trail use rates are low. In order to manage the coexistence of flora and fauna with human recreation effectively, park managers should employ decision frameworks that collectively consider the effects from anthropogenic and environmental variables.

Effects of Recreation on Animals Revealed as Widespread through a Global Systematic Review.

Outdoor recreation is typically assumed to be compatible with biodiversity conservation and is permitted in most protected areas worldwide. However, increasing numbers of studies are discovering negative effects of recreation on animals. We conducted a systematic review of the scientific literature and analyzed 274 articles on the effects of non-consumptive recreation on animals, across all geographic areas, taxonomic groups, and recreation activities. We quantified trends in publication rates and outlets, identified knowledge gaps, and assessed evidence for effects of recreation. Although publication rates are low and knowledge gaps remain, the evidence was clear with over 93% of reviewed articles documenting at least one effect of recreation on animals, the majority of which (59%) were classified as negative effects. Most articles focused on mammals (42% of articles) or birds (37%), locations in North America (37.7%) or Europe (26.6%), and individual-level responses (49%). Meanwhile, studies of amphibians, reptiles, and fish, locations in South America, Asia, and Africa, and responses at the population and community levels are lacking. Although responses are likely to be species-specific in many cases, some taxonomic groups (e.g., raptors, shorebirds, ungulates, and corals) had greater evidence for an effect of recreation. Counter to public perception, non-motorized activities had more evidence for a negative effect of recreation than motorized activities, with effects observed 1.2 times more frequently. Snow-based activities had more evidence for an effect than other types of recreation, with effects observed 1.3 times more frequently. Protecting biodiversity from potentially harmful effects of recreation is a primary concern for conservation planners and land managers who face increases in park visitation rates; accordingly, there is demand for science-based information to help solve these dilemmas.

Ecosystem Service Value for the Common Reed Wetlands in the Liaohe Delta, Northeast China

The largest reed field in the world, with an area of 1000 km2 in 1953, is located in the Liaohe Delta, which lies in the five-point-in-a-line economic strategic zone of northeastern China. However, the area of reeds has declined dramatically in recent years to accommodate oil field infrastructure and societal developments. Although the direct and indirect services provided by such wetlands make valuable contributions to human welfare, wetlands are often given little weight in policy decisions, because ecosystem services are not fully “captured” in commercial markets or adequately quantified in terms comparable with the values of economic services and manufactured capital. In this study the value of 10 of 17 ecosystem services provided by the reed wetlands in the Liaohe Delta was estimated by using market pricing, shadow projects, and benefit transfer methods. The value of the 10 services provided by the 800 km2 of reed wetland totaled approximately US $2.68 billion. Remarkably, aquaculture and the production of pulp from reeds accounted for only 19% of the total value of the reed wetland services. About 32% of the value of the ecosystem services was attributed to non-consumptive recreation, an easily perceived service that may act as a powerful incentive for sustainable management of this wetland ecosystem. The results of this study should help not only to guide management decisions with respect to this particular wetland but also to serve as an example of the approach to be taken with respect to valuation of similarly endangered wetlands throughout China.

Do outdoor recreation participants place their lands in conservation easements?

It has been posited that participation in outdoor recreation activities increases awareness of environmental issues and support for environmental conservation. Studies have shown that different outdoor recreationists may have different environmental orientations. For example, because of their utility orientation toward land, consumptive recreationists may be less likely than non-consumptive recreationists to protect their land from development. Hence, using a United States household survey, this paper examines whether people participating in consumptive outdoor recreation activities differ from those who participate in non-consumptive recreation in their willingness to place their lands into conservation easements. Results indicate people who participate in land-based consumptive recreation are less likely to place their lands in conservation easements than people who participate in land-based non-consumptive recreation.

Simulating the responses of forest bird species to multi-use recreational trails

Although non-consumptive recreation can promote wildlife preservation and add socio-economic value to parks and nature reserves, such activities can have negative implications for wildlife. For sensitive species, recreation can lead to displacement, influence breeding success and reduce survival. Thus managing recreational activities by regulating visitor access, densities and frequency can effectively reduce human–wildlife interactions. In many instances, simulation modeling has been used as a management tool, as it allows the user to explore the impact of alternative park designs and management strategies on wildlife in a risk-free environment. Such exercises tend to focus on single species, generally a species of conservation concern, on which management decisions are based. As an alternative approach, we used a modeling simulation to compare the disturbance caused by different trail designs, trail use rates and the management of invasive vegetation (i.e., removal) on a forest community of breeding birds at a state park in Indiana, USA. Our multi-species approach revealed that an appropriate trail design for one species was not necessarily appropriate for another, even among species of concern. We therefore caution that management based on a single high profile species could have far-reaching implications on the local community. We also found that invasive vegetation removal did not have a cumulative influence on the recreational disturbance experienced by birds. This study demonstrates that by identifying and comparing the differences between individual species within a community, we gain valuable insights that can be used devise more resilient long-term management strategies that aim to preserve biodiversity.

Exploring the implications of recreational disturbance on an endangered butterfly using a novel modelling approach

Site and wildlife managers globally are under increasing pressure to implement management strategies that address the negative implications of outdoor recreational activities on wildlife. For many rare and isolated species any anthropogenic activities that cause disturbance could potentially be detrimental to existing populations. Understanding how non-consumptive recreation can influence a species may therefore be critical to its preservation. We developed a novel approach to specifically address this need. Using a combination of field surveys and simulation modelling exercises, we (1) explored the responses of endangered Karner blue butterflies (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) to recreation, (2) assessed whether such responses influenced oviposition rate and/or host plant choice and (3) tested alternative management strategies that could alleviate the negative impacts of recreation. Our field surveys confirmed that Karner blues were sensitive to recreational disturbance. Butterflies flushed at similar speeds and distances from recreationists (2.2 m at 0.17 m/s), as they would from natural threats, such as predators (2.2 m at 0.19 m/s). Incorporating female response parameters into a simulation model revealed that regular disturbance could reduce egg laying potential and significantly restrict host plant choice, which in turn, could impact the butterfly’s population dynamics. However, we established that it was possible to effectively offset the implications of recreational disturbance using our simulation modelling approach. For example, extending Karner blue breeding habitat from trails and other public rights of way has the potential to alleviate such disturbance. Our study demonstrates that the potential impact of recreation on species of conservation concern should not be overlooked.

Differences in Overall Satisfaction by Consumptive and Nonconsumptive Recreationists: A Comparative Analysis of Three Decades of Research

This article extends a previous comparative analysis (Vaske, Donnelly, Heberlein, & Shelby, 1982) by analyzing differences in overall satisfaction by consumptive and nonconsumptive recreationists over a 30-year period. Based on theory and previous research, two hypotheses were advanced: (a) consumptive recreationists will report significantly lower satisfaction than will nonconsumptive recreationists and (b) this pattern will remain consistent over time. Data were obtained from published and unpublished studies in 57 consumptive (e.g., hunters) and 45 nonconsumptive (e.g., kayakers) recreation contexts. Each study used the same overall satisfaction question (i.e., “overall, how would you rate your experience”). Following Vaske et al. (1982), responses were collapsed into three categories (i.e., “poor/fair,” “good/very good,” “excellent/perfect”). The independent variables were activity type and year. Consistent with the hypotheses, consumptive recreationists reported lower satisfaction than did nonconsumptive recreationists, and this pattern of findings generally remained consistent over time.

Values of natural and human‐made wetlands: A meta‐analysis

The values of goods and services provided by wetland ecosystems are examined through a meta‐analysis of an expanded database of wetland value estimates and with a focus on human‐made wetlands. This study extends and improves upon previous meta‐analyses of the wetland valuation literature in terms of the number of observations, geographical coverage, wetland class and integrity, and the measurement of the effects of scarcity and anthropogenic pressure. We find that water quality improvement, nonconsumptive recreation, and provision of natural habitat and biodiversity are highly valued services. Substitution effects are observed through the negative correlation between values and abundance of other wetlands. Wetland values are found to increase with anthropogenic pressure. An extended metaregression model with cross effects shows that the valuation of specific services varies with the type of wetland producing them. Human‐made wetlands are highly valued for biodiversity enhancement, water quality improvement, and flood control.

The Values of Natural and Constructed Wetlands: A Meta-Analysis

The values of goods and services provided by natural and constructed wetlands are examined through a meta-analysis of 418 observations of the economic value of 186 wetlands. Water quality improvement, non-consumptive recreation, and provision of natural habitat and biodiversity turn out to be highly valued services. Substitution effects are observed through the negative correlation between values and proximity to other wetlands. Values are found to increase with anthropogenic pressure. Constructed wetlands are highly valued for biodiversity enhancement, water quality improvement, and flood control. This study provides a substantially new contribution in relation to previous meta-analyses of the wetland valuation literature.

Quiet, Nonconsumptive Recreation Reduces Protected Area Effectiveness

AbstractProtected areas around the world were created with the goals of preserving biodiversity and providing nature‐based recreation opportunities for millions of people. This dual mandate guides the management of the majority of the world's protected areas, but there is growing evidence that quiet, nonconsumptive recreation may not be compatible with biodiversity protection. We combined noninvasive survey techniques and DNA verification of species identifications to survey for mammalian carnivores in 28 parks and preserves in northern California. Paired comparisons of neighboring protected areas with and without recreation revealed that the presence of dispersed, nonmotorized recreation led to a five‐fold decline in the density of native carnivores and a substantial shift in community composition from native to nonnative species. Demand for recreation and nature‐based tourism is forecasted to grow dramatically around the world, and our findings suggest a pressing need for new approaches to the designation and management of protected areas.

Can Superior Natural Amenities Create High-Quality Employment Opportunities? The Case of Nonconsumptive River Recreation in Central Idaho

ABSTRACT Central Idaho has superior environmental amenities, as evidenced by exceptionally high-value tourism, such as guided whitewater rafting. The focus of our study concerns the attainment of high-quality jobs in a high-quality natural environment. We estimate cumulative wage rate effects unique to nonconsumptive river recreation in central Idaho for comparison with other sectors. The cumulative effects are based on a detailed survey of recreation spending and a modified synthesized input–output model. Cumulative wage rate effects support using the abundance of environmental amenities to expand and attract high-wage, environmentally sensitive firms, as opposed to expanded tourism to improve employment quality.

Recreational rates and future land-use preferences for four Department of Energy sites: consistency despite demographic and geographical differences

The management of ecosystems has been improved by both a public understanding of ecosystem structure and function and by managers’ understanding of public perceptions and attitudes. This is especially true for contaminated lands where there are a variety of remediation, restoration, and future land-use decisions to be made. This paper synthesizes several surveys from four US Department of Energy (DOE) sites in the states of South Carolina, Idaho, Nevada, and New York. Although ethnic composition varied among the sites, age and gender did not. The percentage of the study population engaged in hunting ranged from 30% to 41% and that in fishing ranged from 55% to 74%. Average hunting rates ranged from 9 (New York) to 15 (South Carolina) days/year; average fishing rates ranged from 12 (New Mexico) to 38 (New York) days a year. Despite the demographic and recreational rate differences, there was remarkable agreement about future land uses. Maintaining these DOE sites as National Environmental Research Parks and using them for nonconsumptive recreation rated the highest. The lowest rated future land uses were current and additional nuclear waste storage and the building of homes and factories. People who participated in a recreational activity rated those future land uses higher than nonusers. While these data on recreational rates can be used to assess the potential risk to people using contaminated sites and to aid in setting clean-up standards based on potential risk, the information on land-use preferences can be used by managers to determine future use and to plan for such use. This information is particularly relevant to the Department of Energy's “Risk-based End State Vision.”

Satisfaction levels of birdwatchers: An observation on the consumptive—nonconsumptive continuum1

Abstract Visitors using an auto tour route at a National Wildlife Refuge were found to report a high degree of satisfaction with their visit using a standard satisfaction scale that has been applied to other recreationists. Reported satisfaction levels were similar to other nonconsumptive recreation activities and considerably higher than consumptive activities (hunting or fishing). Degree of skill at bird identification was related to reported satisfaction, with more knowledgeable birders reporting significantly lower satisfaction levels than less knowledgeable birders. Differences may be related to the goal specificity of advanced birders which renders this activity more similar to a consumptive recreation, or to variation in expectations and preferences among different levels of birders.