Non-clinical Paranoia Research Articles

The developmental course of adolescent paranoia: a longitudinal analysis of the interacting role of mistrust and general psychopathology.

Paranoia is the erroneous idea that people are targeting you for harm, and the cognitive model suggests that symptoms increase with emotional and relational distress. A factor potentially associated with paranoia is mistrust, a milder form of suspiciousness. This study investigated the longitudinal course of non-clinical paranoia in a sample of 739 students (age range 10-12 at baseline assessment, 12-14 at second assessment) using data from the Social Mistrust Scale (SMS) and the paranoia subscale of the Specific Psychotic Experiences Questionnaire (SPEQ). Prevalence of mistrustful and high paranoia children was 14.6 and 15% respectively. Independently, baseline internalizing symptoms (b = 0.241, p < 0.001) and mistrust (b = 0.240, p < 0.001) longitudinally predict paranoia after controlling for confounders. The interaction of mistrust and internalizing symptoms at T1 increases the possibility of the onset of paranoia at T2. Therefore, the effect of mistrust on paranoia is more marked when internalizing symptoms are higher. Our results confirm the role of mistrust as a factor involved in the developmental trajectory of paranoia in adolescence, enhanced by the presence of internalizing symptoms. The implications of these results are both theoretical and clinical, as they add developmental information to the cognitive model of paranoia and suggests the assessment and clinical management of mistrust and internalizing symptoms in youth may be useful with the aim of reducing the risk of psychotic experiences.

Schizophrenia and Increased Distrust-Based Competitiveness in Interpersonal Interactions: A Serial Process Model.

Game theory paradigms, such as the Prisoner's Dilemma Game (PDG), have been used to study nonclinical paranoia, though research using clinical populations has been scarce. We test our novel theoretical model that schizophrenia leads to competitiveness in interpersonal interactions, and that this link is serially mediated by trait paranoia, state paranoia, and distrust. In this quasi-experimental study, individuals with schizophrenia spectrum diagnoses with current persecutory delusions (n = 46) and a nonclinical control group (n = 43) played the PDG, and completed measures of trait paranoia, state paranoia, and distrust. Individuals with schizophrenia competed more in the PDG than the control group. Supporting our theoretical model, all direct effects were significant: schizophrenia was associated with higher trait paranoia (H1); trait paranoia predicted state paranoia in the PDG (H2); state paranoia in the PDG predicted distrust of the opponent in the PDG (H3); and distrust predicted competition in the PDG (H4). The hypothesized indirect effect of schizophrenia on competition in the PDG via trait paranoia, state paranoia, and distrust was supported in a serial mediation model (H5). The findings make clear theoretical and methodological contributions. We provide the first evidence for a theoretical process model by which schizophrenia leads to competitiveness in interpersonal interactions via trait paranoia, state paranoia, and distrust. Game theory paradigms, and the PDG in particular, are important for advancing theory and research on paranoia as it occurs in both clinical and nonclinical populations.

Do emotion regulation strategies mediate the attachment-paranoia association? An experimental study of repeated attachment imagery priming and stress buffering.

ObjectivesParanoia describes unfounded interpersonal threat beliefs. Secure attachment imagery attenuates paranoia, but limited research examines mechanisms of change and no studies examine how secure imagery may be implemented most effectively in clinical practice. In this study, we tested: (a) the causal impact of secure, anxious, and avoidant attachment imagery on paranoia and anxiety, (b) whether emotion regulation strategies mediate these relationships, and (c) whether secure imagery buffers against social stress.DesignWe utilized a longitudinal, experimental design.MethodA general population sample with high non‐clinical paranoia (N = 265) completed measures of paranoia, anxiety, and emotion regulation strategies. Participants were randomly allocated to secure, anxious, or avoidant conditions and repeated an imagery prime for four days prior to a social stress task.ResultsRelative to anxious and avoidant imagery, secure imagery decreased state paranoia and anxiety. These associations were not mediated by state emotion regulation strategies, and secure imagery did not buffer against stress. Exploratory analyses on trait variables revealed that: (a) hyperactivating strategies mediated the association between attachment anxiety and paranoia, and (b) suppression mediated the association between attachment avoidance and paranoia.ConclusionsSecure attachment imagery reduces state paranoia and anxiety and could be incorporated into psychotherapies to attenuate clinical paranoia. Measurement of state emotion regulation was problematic. Attachment imagery does not buffer stress; further research is required to test whether secure imagery facilitates recovery from stress. Attachment style is likely to account for trait paranoia via attachment‐congruent emotion regulation strategies. Research is now needed to determine if these strategies can be targeted to alleviate paranoia in clinical populations.

Are they out to get me? Individual differences in nonclinical paranoia as a function of narcissism and defensive self-protection.

Three studies tested a novel model of the narcissism-paranoia link, whereby narcissism (primarily its socially maladaptive facets) is associated with paranoia via over-use of defensive self-protection and/or under-use of self-affirmation. In Study 1, 245 online volunteers (87% female; MAGE =20.92; 44% White-British) completed trait measures of narcissism, self-enhancement/protection strategies and paranoia. In Study 2, 116 students (82% female; MAGE =20.23; 70% White-British) completed baseline measures, then reported state reactions and paranoia following two difficult and two pleasant interpersonal events after 3-10days. In Study 3, 517 online volunteers (64% female; MAGE =22.76; 77% White/Caucasian) completed baseline measures, experienced a standardized social exclusion (vs. neutral) manipulation (Cyberball), then reported state reactions and paranoia. In Study 1, narcissism was associated with higher paranoia via defensiveness. In Study 2, this was replicated in difficult but not pleasant events, and was driven by the Entitlement/Exploitativeness facet of narcissism. In Study 3, narcissistic rivalry and vulnerable narcissism, but not admiration, were associated with Cyberball-related paranoia via general defensiveness and denigration of others. Individuals high in narcissism-especially its socially maladaptive facets-who over-rely on defensive self-protection strategies in response to threat, are particularly vulnerable to paranoia. Findings help to understand individual differences in paranoia.

Evaluating a Values-Based Intervention for Adolescence with High Nonclinical Paranoia: A Schools-Based Randomised Control Trial

BackgroundParanoia in adolescents is common, but research on attenuating it is scarce. Focusing on values and enhancing value-based acts is a low intensity method for attenuating paranoia in adults. This randomised trial compared a brief (30-min, self-directed) values-plus-goals intervention to an active control for adolescents with high nonclinical paranoia (Paranoia Scale ≥ 53), delivered in schools. The study also investigated the role of self-esteem.MethodsNinety adolescents were randomly assigned to condition. Paranoia (primary outcome) and self-esteem (potential mediator) were assessed at baseline (T1), and two- (T2) and six-weeks (T3) after baseline.ResultsResults were analysed using intention to treat (ITT) and per protocol (PP) analysis. Using ITT analysis, the Condition*Time interaction was significant (F(2, 168) = 3.98, p = .02), paranoia was significantly lower at T3 following values-plus-goals as compared to control (d = 0.64). Differences were not significant using per protocol analysis (F(2, 106) = 1.61, p = .21). The between group effect size at T3 was (d = 0.61). The Condition*Time interaction for self-esteem was not significant (F(2, 112) = 2.86, p = .06).ConclusionsTentatively, findings suggest that a brief values-plus-goals intervention can reduce paranoia in adolescents relative to an active control.

The Impact of Repeated Attachment Priming on Paranoia, Mood and Help-Seeking Intentions in an Analogue Sample.

Attachment security priming effects therapeutic change in people with depression and anxiety. Preliminary studies indicate that visualising secure attachment memories also reduces paranoia in non-clinical and clinical groups, probably due to a decrease in cognitive fusion. Benefits to clinical populations depend on the sustainability of these effects and the impact on help-seeking behaviours. The combination of paranoia and an insecure-avoidant attachment style is likely to be a particular barrier to help seeking. We used a longitudinal experimental design to test the impact of repeated attachment priming on paranoia, mood and help-seeking intentions and whether cognitive fusion mediates these effects. Seventy-nine people with high levels of non-clinical paranoia, aged 18–50 years (M = 20.53, SD = 4.57), were randomly assigned to a secure or insecure-avoidant priming condition. Participants rehearsed the visualisation prime on four consecutive days and were assessed on standardised measures of paranoia, positive and negative affect, help-seeking intentions and cognitive fusion. A series of mixed-model analyses of variance showed that security priming decreases paranoia, negative affect and cognitive fusion and increases positive affect and help seeking, compared to insecure-avoidant priming. Examining the impact of primed attachment (rather than measured attachment style) allows us to draw conclusions about the causal processes involved; mediation analyses showed indirect effects of the primes on paranoia and negative affect through cognitive fusion. With a growing understanding of (1) the impact of security priming on paranoia, affect and help-seeking behaviours, (2) causal mechanisms and (3) sustainability of effects, security priming may be developed into a viable intervention for clinical populations.

Using 360° immersive videos to assess paranoia in a non-clinical population

ABSTRACT Introduction: For the past two decades, virtual reality (VR) has proven to be an innovative approach for the assessment of state paranoia. However, the use of VR remains costly, and avatars are still far from realistic in terms of facial and bodily expressions. The present study aimed to test the validity of three 360° immersive videos (360IVs) as an accessible and realistic alternative for the assessment of non-clinical state paranoia. Method: Three 360IVs were created (a Lift, a Library and a Bar) and included actors behaving naturally. One hundred and fifty healthy students were assessed in terms of their proneness towards trait paranoia, were then exposed to one of the three 360IVs, and finally completed measures of state paranoia, sense of presence and cybersickness. Results : Results revealed the presence of various interpretations about the actor’s attitudes in the three 360IVs. Also, paranoid thoughts were predicted by proneness towards trait paranoia in two out of the three 360IVs. Furthermore, moderate levels of sense of presence and low levels of cybersickness were observed for each 360IV. Conclusion: The present study provides evidence in favour of the use of 360IVs as a new accessible, realistic, and standardised tool to assess state paranoia in non-clinical samples.

How does attachment imagery for paranoia work? Cognitive fusion and beliefs about self and others mediate the impact on paranoia and anxiety.

Paranoia describes unfounded and distressing interpersonal threat beliefs. Secure attachment imagery has been shown to attenuate paranoia and anxiety in non-clinical and clinical groups, but little is known about the differential effects of anxious and avoidant imagery or mechanisms of change. In this study, we tested the impact of secure, anxious, and avoidant attachment imagery on paranoia, anxiety, and help-seeking intentions. We also examined hypothesized mechanisms of change, specifically whether cognitive fusion and negative self- and other-beliefs mediate these relationships. This study utilized an experimental, cross-sectional design. A large (N = 303), international general population sample with high levels of non-clinical paranoia completed a series of measures before and after engaging in secure, anxious, or avoidant imagery. Relative to anxious and avoidant attachment imagery, secure attachment imagery reduced paranoia and anxiety and increased help-seeking intentions. Cognitive fusion and negative self- and other-beliefs mediated the impact of attachment imagery on paranoia and anxiety, but not help-seeking. In line with attachment and cognitive theory, secure attachment imagery is effective in reducing paranoia and anxiety and works by reducing cognitive fusion and negative self- and other-beliefs. These novel findings suggest that the secure imagery task could be incorporated into cognitive and behavioural therapies to reduce distressing interpersonal threat beliefs and associated negative affect, and increase help-seeking intentions. When working with people experiencing paranoia, secure attachment imagery may be effective in reducing state paranoia and anxiety and improving help-seeking intentions. Attachment imagery works by influencing beliefs about self and others, and the degree to which people are fused with their beliefs. In clinical practice, the rationale for the imagery task fits well with psychological models of paranoia and the secure imagery task can be introduced as a way to cope when struggling with distressing beliefs about self and others, and feeling overwhelmed by these fears.

A Randomised Comparison of Values and Goals, Versus Goals Only and Control, for High Nonclinical Paranoia

BackgroundParanoia is common in the general population. Focusing on values and enhancing value-based acts may attenuate it. This study compared three brief (30-min, self-directed) online conditions: focusing on values and value-based goal setting (n = 30), goal setting only (n = 32) and non-values/goals control (n = 32) in a high paranoia sample.MethodsParticipants were randomly assigned to condition. State paranoia (primary outcome) and positive and negative self-views following a difficult interpersonal experience (secondary outcome) were assessed at baseline and two-weeks.ResultsIntention-to-treat: state paranoia was significantly lower following the values condition as compared to non-values/goals control (ηp2 = .148) and goals only (ηp2 = .072). Only the former comparison was significant. Per-protocol: groups did not significantly differ (p = .077). Within-group effect sizes: values and value-based goal setting (intention-to-treat d = .82, per-protocol d = .78), goals only (intention-to-treat d = .41, per-protocol d = .42) non-values/goals control (intention-to-treat d = .25, per-protocol d = .24). Positive self-views increased in all conditions. The increase was largest for the values condition, but not significantly so.LimitationsReliance on self-report, brief follow-up, predominantly White female sample.ConclusionsThe values condition was most effective at reducing non-clinical paranoia. The values condition appeared to increase positive self-views more so than comparison groups, but the sample was small and the difference was non-significant.

Cognitive Fusion Mediates the Impact of Attachment Imagery on Paranoia and Anxiety

BackgroundParanoia, in both clinical and non-clinical groups, is characterised by unfounded interpersonal threat beliefs. Secure attachment imagery attenuates paranoia, but little is known about the mechanisms of change. Cognitive fusion describes the extent to which we can ‘step back’ from compelling beliefs, to observe these as mental events, and is implicated in psychopathology cross-diagnostically.AimsThis study extends previous research demonstrating the impact of attachment imagery on paranoia and anxiety to determine whether cognitive fusion mediates these relationships.MethodWe utilised a randomized experimental design and recruited an analogue sample with high levels of non-clinical paranoia to test the impact of imagery and the role of cognitive fusion.ResultsSecure attachment imagery resulted in reduced paranoia and anxiety compared to threat/insecure imagery. Cognitive fusion mediated the relationships between imagery and paranoia, and imagery and anxiety.ConclusionsSecure attachment imagery is effective in reducing paranoia and anxiety and operates via cognitive fusion. In clinical practice, these interventions should seek to facilitate the ability to ‘step back’ from compelling threat beliefs, in order to be most beneficial.

Does mental imagery affect paranoia, anxiety and core beliefs? A pilot experimental study in an analogue sample

ABSTRACT Background: Mental imagery is implicated in the maintenance and treatment of persecutory delusions, yet there is little experimental evidence for the effects of imagery on paranoia, anxiety and core beliefs – key therapeutic targets in CBT for psychosis. Aims: This pilot study examined the impact of a repeated imagery task in people with high levels of non-clinical paranoia, to determine whether a fully powered study is warranted. Method: Twenty-four people participated in a 3 × 3 mixed model design comparing paranoia, anxiety and core beliefs between imagery conditions (positive/negative/neutral) and across time-points (pre/post/follow-up). Results: The imagery task yielded large effects on paranoia, anxiety and core self-beliefs. Conclusions: Rehearsing interpersonal imagery in which the person experiences themselves as safe, secure, and able to trust others, may have large, sustained effects. A fully powered clinical study is warranted.

Imagery rescripting in non-clinical paranoia: a pilot study of the impact on key cognitive and affective processes.

Paranoia is often accompanied by distressing intrusions associated with traumatic memories, yet one of the best-evidenced interventions, imagery rescripting (IR), is not routinely offered. This is likely to be due to poor understanding of the effects of IR on postulated mechanisms of change as well as the absence of a robust evidence base. This study aimed to establish proof of principle that IR impacts key cognitive-affective processes associated with distressing intrusions - memory characteristics and self-representations - and level of paranoia. We used a within-subject repeated measures design to examine the effect of single-session IR on memory characteristics (level of intrusions, vividness, distress, encapsulated belief strength, emotion intensity and frequency), self-representation variables, affect and paranoia. Fifteen participants were seen once before and once after the IR session, to gather baseline and follow-up data. As predicted, participants reported reductions in memory characteristics, improved self-esteem and positive affect, and reduced negative affect and paranoia, with large effect sizes. These effects were maintained at follow-up. While a within-subject design is useful for initial exploration of novel interventions, controlled studies are needed to determine causality. This is the first study to examine mechanisms of IR in paranoia. A controlled trial is now warranted.

The roles of cognitive avoidance, rumination and negative affect in the association between abusive supervision in the workplace and non-clinical paranoia in a sample of workers working in France

This study examined the relationship between abusive supervision and non-clinical paranoia and explored which cognitive mechanisms are mediating this association (i.e. rumination, cognitive avoidance and negative affect). A sample of two hundred and five French-speaking workers currently in employment in France was recruited to fill in a battery of online questionnaires comprising of the French adaptations of the Abusive Supervision Scale, the State Social Paranoia Scales, the Depression and Anxiety and Stress Scales, the Cognitive Avoidance Questionnaire and the Mini-Cambridge Exeter Repetitive Thought Scale. Mediation analyses showed that the experience of supervisory abuse directly influences state paranoia, however, there were significant mediation effects. Abusive supervision impacted on cognitive avoidance that led to more rumination, which in its turn increased negative affect and this increased state paranoia. Rumination impacted on state paranoia but through the effect of negative affect only. This study showed that abusive supervision works together with cognitive and affective factors to impact on non-clinical paranoia. It is recommended that Cognitive and Behavioural therapy (CBT) is tailored to help workers to cope with experiences of supervisory abuse and associated paranoid thoughts by focusing on replacing rumination and cognitive avoidance strategies for more adaptive cognitive strategies and on how to manage depression.

The simulation heuristic, paranoia, and social anxiety in a non-clinical sample

Background and objectivesQuality of reasoning within non-clinical paranoia and mental simulation of future paranoia themed events was investigated by use of a simulation task to determine whether paranoid individuals would be restricted or more adept at reasoning about paranoia relevant material in comparison to a social anxiety group and a group with low paranoia and social anxiety. MethodParticipants (N = 63) were divided into the three groups based on paranoia and social anxiety scores. They were presented with the beginning and end of an imaginary situation and were asked to describe, step-by-step, what they imagined would happen between those two points. They were also administered a beads task to evaluate the jumping to conclusion decision making bias. ResultsThe prediction of more adept reasoning was not supported for paranoia. However, the social anxiety comparison group on average better simulated a scenario with congruent (socially anxious) thematic content compared to ones with non-congruent content. Further, in an exploratory analysis, jumping to conclusions bias was found to be positively related to goodness of simulation for paranoia themed scenarios within the paranoia group. Limitations: Study groups were relatively small and so power was an issue. ConclusionThe results are discussed in the context of the sometimes paradoxical findings in the area of cognitive biases and paranoia.

An experimental manipulation of negative metacognitive beliefs in non-clinical paranoia

Metacognitive beliefs implicated in the Self-Regulatory Executive Function (S-REF) model (Wells &amp; Matthews, 1994, 1996) have demonstrated significant positive relationships with experiences of psychosis. This study aimed to investigate the effect of manipulating metacognitive beliefs relating to the uncontrollability and danger of thoughts on paranoia frequency and negative affect in a non-clinical sample. Seventy-six students participated in a randomised experiment. All participants were falsely informed they were taking part in an EEG study about thought processes in paranoia. Following a paranoia induction, participants in the experimental condition were told that the EEG could detect paranoid thoughts and may make a loud noise in response to detecting them; participants in the control condition were told the EEG could detect paranoid thoughts and may make a loud noise at random. Validity checks confirmed the paranoia prime was effective and there was a significant change in metacognitive beliefs following the manipulation. Overall no significant differences between the two groups on measures of intrusions or anxiety emerged following the manipulation. However, changes in physiological anxiety approached significance. The results demonstrate it is feasible to manipulate metacognitive beliefs and induce paranoia. A recommendation for further research to use a refined paradigm with a clinical sample is discussed.

The role of cognitive and metacognitive factors in non‐clinical paranoia and negative affect

It is increasingly accepted that paranoia lies on a continuum of severity that can be observed in the general population. Several psychological factors have been implicated in the development of more distressing persecutory ideas including negative affect (i.e., anxiety and depression), beliefs about oneself and other people (i.e., schemas), and metacognitive beliefs. This study aimed to explore the combined role of cognition and metacognition in paranoia. Specifically, unhelpful metacognitive beliefs and schematic beliefs were tested as potential moderators of the relationship between non-clinical paranoid ideation and negative affect. Measures from 227 people who took part in a cross-sectional online survey were analysed using structural equationmodelling. A series of models grounded in cognitive and metacognitive theory were tested sequentially. The results demonstrated that unhelpful metacognitive beliefs had a positive moderating effect on the relationship between paranoia and negative affect. Negative beliefs about oneself and other people did not moderate negative affect but positive beliefs about other people had a negative moderating effect. In a final model, negative schematic beliefs predicted paranoid ideation whilst metacognitive beliefs predicted and moderated affect. The findings suggest that consideration of metacognitive beliefs, as well as schemas, may be important in understanding non-clinical paranoia. Metacognitive beliefs may be an important determinant of negative affect in the context of non-clinical paranoia. The consideration of both cognitive and metacognitive factors may be helpful when working with people with distressing paranoid ideas.

A Randomised Controlled Trial of a Brief Online Mindfulness-Based Intervention on Paranoia in a Non-Clinical Sample

Paranoia is common and distressing in the general population and can impact on health, emotional well-being and social functioning, such that effective interventions are needed. Brief online mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have been shown to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression in non-clinical samples; however, at present, there is no research investigating whether they can reduce paranoia. The current study explored whether a brief online MBI increased levels of mindfulness and reduced levels of paranoia in a non-clinical population. The mediating effect of mindfulness on any changes in paranoia was also investigated. One hundred and ten participants were randomly allocated to either a 2-week online MBI including 10 min of daily guided mindfulness practice or to a waitlist control condition. Measures of mindfulness and paranoia were administered at baseline, post-intervention and 1-week follow-up. Participants in the MBI group displayed significantly greater reductions in paranoia compared to the waitlist control group. Mediation analysis demonstrated that change in mindfulness skills (specifically the observe, describe and non-react facets of the FFMQ) mediated the relationship between intervention type and change in levels of paranoia. This study provides evidence that a brief online MBI can significantly reduce levels of paranoia in a non-clinical population. Furthermore, increases in mindfulness skills from this brief online MBI can mediate reductions in non-clinical paranoia. The limitations of the study are discussed.

An experimental investigation into the role of ruminative and mindful self-focus in non-clinical paranoia

Background & objectivesRuminative self-focus is a maladaptive form of emotional processing and is linked to distress, whereas mindful self-focus is adaptive and linked to low distress. However, the effects of these different modes of self-focus have not yet been examined in symptoms associated with psychotic disorders, such as paranoid ideation. This study aimed to explore whether inducing ruminative self-focus maintains paranoid ideation whilst inducing mindful self-focus reduces paranoid ideation. MethodThirty-two non-clinical participants engaged in a paranoia induction prime and then took part in an eight-minute ruminative self-focus induction and an eight-minute mindful self-focus induction. ResultsFollowing an induction of paranoia, mindful self-focus significantly decreased levels of paranoia, whereas ruminative self-focus had no significant impact on levels of paranoia, and therefore was interpreted as having maintained paranoia. LimitationsThe study used non clinical participants and the level of paranoid ideation experienced was fairly mild, which limits generalisation to clinical levels of distress. Additionally, the mechanism by which rumination and mindful self-focus have their effects was not examined. ConclusionsThe results add to the growing body of evidence that there are two distinct modes of self-focus that have differential effects on emotional processing. These findings also demonstrate the potential benefit of interventions targeting rumination in paranoid ideation with mindful self-focus.

The role of mental imagery in non-clinical paranoia

Background & objectivesCognitive models of paranoia incorporate many of the processes implicated in the maintenance of anxiety disorders. Despite this, the role of mental imagery in paranoia remains under-researched. The current study examined the impact of a self-imagery manipulation in people with high non-clinical paranoia. MethodsWe used a mixed design with one between-subjects variable (type of self-imagery) and one within-subjects variable (time – pre and post imagery manipulation). Thirty participants with high trait paranoia were allocated alternately to a positive or negative self-imagery condition. Scripts were used to elicit positive and negative self-imagery. All participants completed self-report state measures of paranoia, mood, self-esteem and self-compassion. ResultsGroup by time interaction effects were found for each of the dependent variables. Positive imagery led to less state paranoia, anxiety and negative affect, and more positive affect, self-esteem and self-compassion, compared with the negative imagery group. LimitationsThis was a non-blind study, limited by allocation method and a brief time-frame which did not allow us to assess longevity of effects. We recruited a relatively small and predominantly female sample of people with high non-clinical paranoia. The study did not include a neutral control condition, a low paranoia comparison group, or a manipulation check following the imagery task. ConclusionsSelf-imagery manipulations may affect paranoia, mood and self-beliefs. If the findings are replicated with clinical groups, and maintained over a longer period, this would suggest that imagery-based interventions targeting persecutory delusions might be usefully examined.

Recall of threat material is modulated by self or other referencing in people with high or low levels of non-clinical paranoia

Background and objectivesBiased processing of negatively valenced, and particularly threat-related material plays an important role in the development of paranoid thinking. This has been demonstrated by superior memory for threat-related information in patients with persecutory delusions and in non-clinical paranoia-prone participants. This study examined how emotional material was recalled having been encoded in relation to one self or to another person, in people high or low in paranoid ideation. It was predicted that people high in paranoia would recall more threat related material about others than people low in paranoia owing to being particularly alert to threats from other people. MethodsParticipants who reported high (N = 30) or low (N = 30) levels of sub-clinical paranoid thinking were presented with a series of threat-related and positive words and were asked to process them in terms of the self, or in terms of a fictional character. ResultsAs predicted, when words were processed in terms of another person, the high paranoia group recalled more threat-related words than positive words, but when words had been processed in terms of the self, recall of threat-related and positive words did not differ. In contrast, there was no interaction between word-valence and referent in the low paranoia group. LimitationsThese findings are drawn from an analogue sample. Replication in a sample of clinical participants who report persecutory delusions is required. ConclusionsPeople high in sub-clinical paranoid ideation recalled threat preferentially in relation to other people. Such information processing biases may help understand the development and maintenance of persecutory beliefs.