Nonathletic Counterparts Research Articles

The impact of inactivity during the COVID-19 pandemic on the physical performance of high school athletes

Background/ObjectiveThis study was conducted during the 2019–2020 academic year to evaluate the impact of participation in school sports on students’ Body Mass Index (BMI) and Assessing Levels of Physical Activity (ALPHA) test scores. Interrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to a suspension of in-person education, the study resumed in September 2021, refocusing on the effects of pandemic-induced inactivity on the physical fitness levels of the same cohort.MethodsThe study included twenty-nine male high school students (age: 17,24 ± 0,73 years), divided into thirteen athletes (participating in sports such as football, basketball, and track) and sixteen non-athletic counterparts. They underwent reassessment using the ALPHA test battery, evaluating cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and motor skills fitness. Data were analyzed using independent and paired samples t-tests and a two-way repeated measures ANOVA to assess changes over time and between groups. Discriminant function analysis evaluated the ALPHA test’s ability to classify students based on their athletic status pre- and post-pandemic.ResultsInitially, athlete students exhibited significantly better BMI, 20 m shuttle run, and 4 × 10 m speed run scores compared to their non-athlete peers. After the pandemic, only the 20 m shuttle run scores remained significantly higher for athletes, with diminished distinctions in other fitness areas. The classification accuracy of the ALPHA test battery decreased from 89.7 to 75.9% post-pandemic.ConclusionThe enforced sedentary lifestyle due to the COVID-19 pandemic adversely affected all students, particularly diminishing health-related fitness parameters such as body composition, cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal strength, and motor skills. Students previously engaged in regular physical activity, notably school athletes, experienced significant fitness declines. This highlights the urgent need for targeted interventions to encourage active lifestyles among youth in the post-pandemic phase, aiming to avert long-term adverse health outcomes.

Thermal relations in sled dogs before and after exercise.

Regulation of internal body temperature (Tb), or thermoregulation, is an evolutionarily conserved trait that places demand on basal metabolic rate of endothermic animals. Across species, athletes generate increased quantities of heat in comparison to their nonathletic counterparts and, therefore, must mediate physiological unbalance by upregulating the effectiveness of their heat dissipation abilities. Canine athletes are no exception to this phenomenon, however, with literature denoting body temperatures lower than nonathletic canines, it is clear they must possess adaptations to mitigate this demand. With VO2 max measurements of more than 200 mL/kg/min in sled dogs with mild training to 300 mL/kg/min in highly trained animals, sled dogs are a prime example of athleticism in canines. Seeking to determine correlations between Tear and body mass, morphology, and age of canine athletes, core body temperature (Tb) was measured with an instant ear thermometer, using Tear as a correlate before and after a 2-mile run. In addition, we employed thermal imaging analysis to capture body-wide heat dissipation patterns in sled dogs, and focused on thermal variation of mouth (Tmouth), nose (Tnose), and eyes (Teye). Furthermore, we looked at correlations between thermal variability across these four tissues and head morphology of each dog. Tear was consistently the highest temperature across all tissues measured, with a 1.5°C increase between pre- to postexercise (p < 0.001). Thermal imaging revealed significant positive correlations between Tmouth and body mass 15 min postexercise (p = 0.0023) as well as significantly negative correlations between Tnose and body mass at before exercise (p = 0.0468), Teye and nose length after run (p = 0.0076), and Tmouth and nose length after run (p = 0.0110). As body temperature rises during exercise, it becomes increasingly important to regulate blood flow throughout the body to supply working tissues with oxygen. This demand is offset by the role of the snout in evaporative cooling through panting, functioning as a prime location for heat dissipation and therefore maintaining significant relationships with many other vascularized tissues.

Adolescent male soccer players have higher growth rates and risk of injury is associated with biological maturity.

The objective of this study was to ascertain disparities in growth and maturation between male adolescents engaged in soccer and their non-athletic counterparts, as well as to examine the injury features specific to young soccer players. A total of 206 soccer players between the ages of 11-16 years, and 208 non-athletic peers were enrolled. Height, weight, body mass index (BMI), annual growth rate, and skeletal age evaluated using a left handwrist x-ray were determined. Biological and sexual maturation were evaluated using skinfold thickness, body composition, and Tanner stages. The game positions, initial age for playing soccer, the number of games per/ week, the number of sports injuries, date of injury, duration for return to activity, the site, nature, mechanism, and rate of injury were recorded for soccer players. Using an injury card, the characteristics of soccer player injuries were recorded. The mean age of the participants was 13.6 ± 1.5 years. There was no difference in the growth rates between the groups at the ages of 11.0, 12.0, and 15.0 but at the ages of 13.0 and 14.0 years growth rates were higher in the soccer group. The soccer players were taller than the controls. For all Tanner stages, soccer players had a lower BMI and total body fat percentage, as well as a faster growth rate. Injuries occurred at a rate of 39.3% per year among soccer players. The most common being toe injuries, and playing soccer increased the risk of multiple injuries. Additionally, injuries occurred more frequently in soccer players who were taller, heavier, with higher total body fat and/or higher growth rate, and most commonly occurred during Tanner stage 4. Futhermore, Tanner stage 4 had a higher incidence of two or more injuries than the other stages. Adolescent male soccer players have higher growth rates than their non-athletic peers, and their biological maturity status is associated with an increased risk of injury.

Back pain in adolescent athletes: a narrative review.

Back pain in young athletes is common. Adolescents are at an increased risk for back pain related to several factors including rapid growth. Traditionally, the conversation around back pain in the adolescent age group has been centered around diagnosis and treatment; however, there are emerging studies regarding prevention. The purpose of the present investigation is to summarize sport-specific risk factors, to describe the growing emphasis on prevention/screening, and report results on minimally invasive and surgical options. The literature search was performed in Mendeley. Search fields were varied until redundant. All articles were screened by title and abstract and a preliminary decision to include an article was made. The full-text screening was performed on the selected articles. Any question regarding the inclusion of an article was discussed by at least 3 authors until an agreement was reached. Adolescent athletes have a higher risk of developing spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis than their non-athletic counterparts. Participation in athletic activity alone, increased body mass index, varsity status, and nationally/internationally competitive status are identified are demographic risk factors. Weightlifters, gymnasts, football players, and combat athletes may be at higher risks. Increased lumbar lordosis, abdominal muscle weakness, hip flexor tightness, hamstring tightness, thoracolumbar fascia tightness, femoral anteversion, genu recurvatum, and thoracic kyphosis also predispose. Recent cadaveric and kinematic studies have furthered our understanding of pathoanatomic. There is some evidence to suggest that isokinetic testing and electromyographic data may be able to identify at-risk individuals. Perturbation-based exercise interventions can reduce the incidence of adolescent athletic back pain. There is a large body of evidence to support the efficacy of physical therapy. There is some data to support minimally invasive treatments including external bone growth simulators, steroid injections, and chemonucleolysis for specific pathologies. Endoscopic surgery results for a limited subset of patients with certain disease processes are good. Back pain in adolescent athletes is common and may not lead to appropriate alterations in athletes' level of participation. Athletes with a higher body mass index should be counseled regarding the benefits of losing weight. Isokinetic testing and electromyographic data have the potential as diagnostic and screening tools. Strength deficits and postural control could be used to identify patients requiring early intervention and thus reduce the incidence. External bone growth simulators, steroid injections, and chemonucleolysis could potentially become conservative options in the future. When surgery is indicated, the endoscopic intervention has the potential to decrease operative time, decrease cost, and promote healing.

Comparing metabolic profiles between female endurance athletes and non-athletes reveals differences in androgen and corticosteroid levels

Endurance training is associated with physiological changes in elite athletes, but little is known about female-specific effects of endurance training. Despite the significant rise in female sports participation, findings from studies performed on male athletes are largely extrapolated to females without taking into consideration sex-specific differences in metabolism. Subsequently, this study aimed to investigate the steroid hormone profiles of elite female endurance athletes in comparison with their non-athletic counterparts. Untargeted metabolomics-based mass spectroscopy combined with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography was performed on serum samples from 51 elite female endurance athletes and 197 non-athletic females. The results showed that, compared to non-athletic females, certain androgen, pregnenolone, and progestin steroid hormones were reduced in elite female endurance athletes, while corticosteroids were elevated. The most significantly altered steroid hormones were 5alpha-androstan-3alpha,17alpha-diol monosulfate (FDR = 1.90 × 10-05), androstenediol (3alpha, 17alpha) monosulfate (FDR = 2.93 × 10-04), and cortisol (FDR = 2.93 × 10-04). Conclusively, the present study suggests that elite female endurance athletes have a unique steroid hormone profile with implications on their general health and performance.

Influence Of Sports And Energy Intake On BMD In Female Athletes Compared To Sedentary Controls

Physical activity, particularly percussive activities with adequate energy intake may influence bone mineral density (BMD) in young female adults. Unfortunately, it is common to see energy deficiencies in this population that can put them at risk of health issues including lower BMD PURPOSE: To determine the influence of the type of sport and energy intake on BMD in female athletes compared to sedentary students. METHOD: Seventy-three female students (age 20.8± 1.9 y, height 167.4± 8.8 cm, weight 62.3± 9.2) from McGill University were evaluated (44 from McGill Varsity Teams: basketball (BB n=13), volleyball (VB n=11), figure skating (FS n =13), and synchronized swimming (SS n=7); and 29 sedentary healthy women (controls). Dietary intake (kcal/day) was assessed using a 3-day Food Log and analysed with the Food ProcessorTM Software. Lumbar spine (LS) (L1-L4) and femoral neck (FN) BMD were assessed by DXA scanning. A one-way ANOVA explored between-group differences and an ANCOVA examined the influence of energy intake on BMD. RESULTS: A significant difference in BMD at the LS and FN sites was observed between the type of sports (F(4,68) = 8.6, p < .001, η2 = .335; F(4,68) = 6.3, p < .001, η2 = .272, respectively). Also, BB (LS = 1.7± 1.53, p < .001; FN = 1.7± 1.13, p = .001) and VB (LS = 1.5 ± 1.55, p = .001; FN = 1.7 ± 1.66, p = .002) players had a significantly higher BMD in both sites compared to their non-athletic counterparts (LS = -0.3 ± 1.19; FN = 0.1 ± 1.04). The FS and SS athlete’s bone densities were not different from the control group (p = .719; p = .246). No significant association was observed between BMD at both sites and total energy intake/day across all groups (F(1,67) = .496, p = .484 , η2 = .007; F(1,67) = .035, p = .852, η2 = .001). There was a significant difference between the delta energy intake (recommended intake minus actual intake) in both BB and SS groups compared to the control group (p = .003 and p = 0.02, respectively). CONCLUSION: The type of sport revealed an influence on BMD. However, no significant relationship was observed between energy intake and BMD. A significant discrepancy was found between the required versus actual energy intake in some athletes. These data suggest that female varsity athletes should work closely with sports dieticians to promote healthy eating and optimize bone health.

The prevalence and clinical significance of premature ventricular beats in the athlete.

Adolescents and adults with cardiovascular disease who are engaged in sports activity have an increased risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD) that is three times greater than that of their non-athletic counterparts. Sport acts as a trigger for cardiac arrest in the presence of underlying cardiovascular diseases predisposing to life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. Frequent and complex premature ventricular beats (PVBs) detected during the cardiovascular screening of the athletic population may be a sign of an underlying cardiovascular disease at risk of SCD, but are also often recorded in trained athletes without cardiovascular abnormalities. Thus, the interpretation of PVBs could represent a clinical dilemma, particularly in the athlete. However, while some characteristics of PVBs can be considered common and benign, others occuruncommonly in the athletic population and raise the suspicion of an underlying cardiovascular disease. This reviewdiscusses the prevalence and clinical significance of PVBs in the athlete, with a focus on exercise-induced PVBs, on the analysis of PVB's morphology at 12-lead ECG, and on the morphological substrates identified byimaging techniques. The implications on eligibility for competitive sports participation are also discussed, according to the relevance of PVB detection for disqualifying athletes from competitions.

Does high level youth sports participation increase the risk of femoroacetabular impingement? A review of the current literature.

Sports participation can be an integral part of adolescent development with numerous positive short and long-term effects. Despite these potential benefits very high levels of physical activity, during skeletal maturation, have been proposed as a possible cause of cam-type femoroacetabular impingement (FAI). The influence of physical activity on the developing physis has been previously described both in animal studies and epidemiological studies of adolescent athletes. It is therefore important to determine whether the development of FAI is secondary to excessive physical activity or a combination of a vulnerable physis and a set level of physical activity. A review of the current literature suggests that adolescent males participating in ice-hockey, basketball and soccer, training at least three times a week, are at greater risk than their non-athletic counterparts of developing the femoral head-neck deformity associated with femoroacetabular impingement.

Associations of lean and fat mass measures with whole body bone mineral content and bone mineral density in female adolescent weightlifters and swimmers.

Body composition and sport participation have been associated with bone mass. The purpose of this study was to determine the associations of lean and fat mass measures with whole body bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD) in female adolescent weightlifters, swimmers and non-athletic counterparts. This study included a total of 25 female adolescents (mean age: 15.3±1.1 years). Body composition and bone mass were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. In most of the studied variables weight lifters had higher values compared to swimmers and non-athletes (p < 0.05). No significant difference was observed between swimmers and non-athletes (p > 0.05). Lean and fat mass measures were positively associated with BMC and BMD for the total participants (p < 0.05) while the associations differed when the study groups were analysed separately. In conclusion, both lean and fat mass measures were strongly related to BMC and BMD in female adolescents while these associations differed in swimmers, weightlifters and non-athletes.

Total, regional and unilateral body composition of professional English first-class cricket fast bowlers

There have been few reports of advanced body composition profiles of elite fast bowlers in the sport of cricket. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to determine total, regional and unilateral body composition characteristics of elite English first-class cricket fast bowlers in comparison with matched controls, using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Twelve male fast bowlers and 12 age-matched, non-athletic controls received one total-body DXA scan. Anthropometric data were obtained as well as left and right regional (arms, legs and trunk) fat mass, lean mass and bone mineral content. Fast bowlers were significantly taller and heavier than controls (P < 0.05). Relative to body mass, fast bowlers possessed greater lean mass in the trunk (80.9 ± 3.7 vs. 76.7 ± 5.9%; P = 0.047) and bone mineral content in the trunk (2.9 ± 0.3 vs. 2.6 ± 0.3%; P = 0.049) and legs (5.4 ± 0.5 vs. 4.6 ± 0.6%; P = 0.003). In the arm region, fast bowlers demonstrated significantly greater unilateral differences in bone mineral content (10.6 ± 6.6 vs. 4.5 ± 3.9%; P = 0.012). This study provides specific body composition values for elite-level fast bowlers and highlights the potential for muscle and bone imbalances that may be useful for conditioning professionals. Our findings also suggest beneficial adaptations in body composition and bone mass in fast bowlers compared with their non-athletic counterparts.

Exercise, the Athlete's Heart, and Sudden Cardiac Death

Physical activity is a potent therapy for both the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. Exercise appears to most benefit people who are the least active. There is some evidence to suggest that a curvilinear relationship exists between exercise and survival, whereby beyond an optimal level of fitness, the principle of diminishing returns applies. Indeed, some go further in suggesting that there is evidence that extreme athletic training may be harmful in some individuals. The incidence of sudden cardiac death in athletes is greater than in matched, nonathletic counterparts, and this finding is driven by the provocation of an underlying cardiac abnormality by strenuous exertion. The task of detecting pathological myocardial substrate in athletes is made difficult by physiological adaptations to exercise that can mimic the appearance of cardiomyopathies and ion channelopathies in some individuals. This article details the clinical evaluation of the athlete with reference limits for cardiac physiological remodeling and discusses the diagnostic dilemmas that arise.

Sudden Cardiac Death in Young Athletes

Sudden cardiac death (SCD) in an athlete is a rare yet highly visible tragedy that generates significant media attention and discussion among medical personnel, sports communities, and laypersons alike. The incidence of SCD is greater in athletes compared with their nonathletic counterparts due to the increased risk associated with strenuous exercise in the context of a quiescent cardiac abnormality. Numerous structural, electrical, and acquired cardiovascular abnormalities are capable of causing SCD, many of which can be identified during life and managed by lifestyle modifications, pharmacotherapy, and device therapy. Strategies for the prevention of SCD, including pre-participation cardiovascular screening, are endorsed by sports governing bodies, but mandatory pre-participation cardiovascular screening remains rare. Evaluation of athletes poses diagnostic difficulties, particularly differentiating between physiological adaptation to exercise, known as athlete's heart, and cardiomyopathic processes capable of causing SCD. This paper provides a detailed review regarding the etiology of SCD in young athletes and provides insight into the challenges and dilemmas faced when evaluating athletes for underlying pathological conditions.

Waterpipe and cigarette smoking among college athletes in the United States.

Tobacco use using a waterpipe is an emerging trend among college students. Although cigarette smoking is low among college athletes, waterpipe tobacco smoking may appeal to this population. The purpose of this study was to compare cigarette and waterpipe tobacco smoking in terms of their associations with organized sport participation. In the spring of 2008, we conducted an online survey of 8,745 college students at eight institutions as part of the revised National College Health Assessment. We used multivariable regression models to assess the associations between tobacco use (cigarette and waterpipe) and organized sports participation. Participants reported participation in varsity (5.2%), club (11.9%), and intramural (24.9%) athletics. Varsity athletes and individuals who were not varsity athletes had similar rates of waterpipe tobacco smoking (27.6% vs. 29.5%, p=.41). However, other types of athletes were more likely than their counterparts to have smoked waterpipe tobacco (35.1% vs. 28.7%, p < .001 for club sports and 34.8% vs. 27.7%, p < .001 for intramural sports). In fully-adjusted multivariable models, sports participants of any type had lower odds of having smoked cigarettes, whereas participants who played intramural sports (odds ratio=1.15, 95% confidence interval=1.03, 1.29) or club sports (odds ratio=1.15, 95% confidence interval=1.001, 1.33) had significantly higher odds of having smoked waterpipe tobacco. College athletes are susceptible to waterpipe tobacco use. In fact, compared with their nonathletic counterparts, club sports participants and intramural sports participants generally had higher odds of waterpipe tobacco smoking. Allure for waterpipe tobacco smoking may exist even for individuals who are traditionally considered at low risk for tobacco use.

Traumatic Anterior Dislocation of the Shoulder: Factors Affecting the Progress of the Traumatic Anterior Dislocation

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to identify the factors that affect the progress of a traumatic anterior dislocation of the shoulder.MethodsTwo hundred and thirty-eight patients (246 shoulders) with a traumatic anterior dislocation were enrolled in this study. The mean age at the time of surgery was 25 years (range, 14 to 47 years). There were 214 men and 24 women.ResultsOne hundred and sixty-four shoulders (67%) were younger than 20 years at the time of the first dislocation. Patients younger than 20 years showed a shorter interval of redislocation (p = 0.001) and a higher frequency of dislocation (p = 0.001). Athletic patients experienced their first dislocation at a younger age (p = 0.023) and showed a shorter interval of redislocation (p = 0.001) than their non-athetic counterparts. The incidence of classic and non-classic Bankart lesions was unaffected by age at the time of the first dislocation, interval between the first and second dislocation or the frequency of dislocation. Patients with bony Bankart lesions had a higher frequency of dislocation (p = 0.043).ConclusionsThe age at the time of the first dislocation and athletic activity were related to early redislocation and a high frequency of dislocation. Bony Bankart lesions were observed more often in patients with a higher frequency of dislocation. Early surgical treatment is a good option for young athletic patients with a bony Bankart lesion and a short interval between the first and second dislocation.

The dizzy athlete

Dizziness is a common complaint both in athletes and their nonathletic counterparts. The diagnosis and treatment of dizziness is not significantly different between the two groups. The first step in evaluation involves defining dizziness as either presyncope, vertigo, disequilibrium, or nonspecific dizziness. Once the symptoms are better defined, the evaluation should then proceed with a careful history, physical examination, and appropriate diagnostic tests as indicated. Treatment strategies can be targeted at the underlying cause with the goal of diminishing or resolving the symptoms as well as preventing their recurrence. This article focuses on the diagnosis of dizziness and subsequent treatment regimens with particular attention paid to presyncope and vertigo.

Outcomes of Isolated Type II SLAP Lesions Treated With Arthroscopic Fixation Using a Bioabsorbable Tack

The objective was to clinically evaluate the treatment of type II Slap lesions repaired surgically using a bioabsorbable device. Retrospective clinical follow-up study. Forty-one patients with isolated type II SLAP lesions who were treated with arthroscopic fixation were identified. Patients were excluded for rotator cuff tears, instability, or subacromial decompression. Patients completed the L'Insalata and the American Society of Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) questionnaires, and underwent a thorough shoulder examination at a minimum of 2 years postoperatively. At a mean of 3.7 years follow-up, 33 of 41 patients returned for physical examination and 6 others returned the L'Insalata questionnaire. The mean L'Insalata and ASES scores were 86.7 and 86.8, respectively; 27 patients reported their satisfaction as good to excellent but only 14 of the 29 athletes returned to their preinjury level of athletics. The average ASES scores were statistically different in patients who had their rotator cuff pierced versus those who did not (P< .05). In addition, 13 of 16 patients who experienced night pain had a cuff piercing approach. Despite high outcome scores, overall patient satisfaction was only 71%. In addition, up to 41% continued to experience some degree of night pain. Patients treated with a rotator cuff piercing had a significantly poorer outcome. Moreover, the patients who were athletes performed poorer on their outcomes evaluation than did their nonathletic counterparts. Whereas the outcome scores overall were high, this problem is still difficult to treat successfully. This may be because of the high demands of athletes. The data also suggest that placing portals through the rotator cuff may be associated with poorer surgical outcomes. Level III.

Femoral Neck Structure in Adult Female Athletes Subjected to Different Loading Modalities

Loading modality is a strong external determinant of structure and concomitant strength of the femoral neck. Particularly effective seem to be loadings, which arise from high impacts or impacts from atypical loading directions. Physical loading plays an important role, not only in the process of bone modeling and remodeling, but also in shaping a mechanically appropriate bone structure. This study aimed at testing the hypothesis that the type of loading partly determines the femoral neck structure. A total of 255 premenopausal female athletes representing volleyball, hurdling, squash-playing, soccer, speed skating, step aerobics, weight-lifting, orienteering, cross-country skiing, cycling, and swimming and their 30 nonathletic counterparts were measured with DXA. Besides the conventional areal BMD (aBMD) of the femoral neck, the hip structure analysis (HSA) was used to estimate the cross-sectional area (CSA), subperiosteal width (W), and section modulus (Z, an index of bone strength) at the narrowest section of the femoral neck. Also, training history, muscle strength, and calcium intake were assessed. The above-mentioned sports were classified according to the type of loading they apparently produce at the hip region; that is, high-impact loading (volleyball, hurdling), odd-impact loading (squash-playing, soccer, speed-skating, step aerobics), high-magnitude loading (weightlifting), low-impact loading (orienteering, cross-country skiing), and nonimpact loading (swimming, cycling). High-impact and odd-impact loading sports were associated with the highest age-, weight-, and height-adjusted aBMD (23% and 29% higher values compared to nonathletic referents), CSA (22% and 27%), and Z (22% and 26%). In contrast, repetitive, nonimpact loading sports were not associated with any clear benefit in any bone value compared with the referents. The W at the narrowest femoral neck section was similar in all groups. Body height and weight accounted virtually for one-half of the variation in Z, whereas the type of loading predicted 13% of the total variation of this variable-clearly more than the 2% attributable to isometric leg extension strength. Both high-impact and odd-impact loading modalities were associated with a large benefit in Z, corresponding to >1 SD in the reference group, whereas repetitive, low-impact loading showed a benefit that was only one-half of that. Surprisingly, high-magnitude loading (weightlifting) was not associated with a statistically significant increase in Z. We conclude that mechanical loading and its modality are strong external determinants of structure and concomitant strength of the femoral neck. Particularly effective seem to be loadings, which arise from high impacts or impacts from atypical loading directions.

SHOULDER TAPING IN THE MANAGEMENT OF IMPINGEMENT OF THE ATHLETE

961 Overhead athletes exhibit generalized laxity compared to non-athletic counterparts. This may predisopose some athletes to shoulder impingement because of a lack of humeral head stabilization. This, coupled with weakness of the posterior rotator cuff, promotes anterior migration of the humeral head. Shoulder taping may be effective in helping the athlete restore normal glenohumeral function. The purpose of this poster is to present the results of this treatment, including inclusion criteria and specific treatment guidelines. Seven recreational athletes (range 17-32 years) presented to physical therapy with a diagnosis of shoulder impingement. Their average length of symptoms was 7.5 months (range 1-24 weeks). Each had shoulder pain with forward flexion and a positive impingement sign, as well as a positive apprehension and relocation sign for pain in the involved shoulder. They also presented with capsular laxity in both shoulders and relative forward position of the humerus. Treatment included posture education and shoulder taping to reposition the humerus more posterior and superior. Subjective complaints of pain with forward elevation were decreased after application of the tape. Each patient was instructed on a home program and attended physical therapy for rotator cuff and scapular stabilizer exercises over an average of 11.4 visits (range 7-20 visits). No modalities were used in the treatments. Each athlete returned to full activity in a mean of 6 weeks (range 2-8 weeks) from the onset of therapy. This study provides (1) inclusion criteria for canditates which may benefit from shoulder taping: shoulder hypermobility, relative forward position of the humerus, positive apprehension and relocation for pain sign, and decreased pain with forward flexion after humeral reposition taping; and, (2) a description of management of impingement without the use of modalities.

Intercollegiate Athletic Participation and Freshman-Year Cognitive Outcomes

The role of intercollegiate athletics in college has recently become the focus of considerable discussion and debate, As suggested by Ryan [30], the contribution of intercollegiate athletic participation to an individual's education is being questioned, not only by faculty and administrators, but also by the public news media. There is a small but growing body of evidence on the impact of athletic participation on various educational outcomes. A substantial segment of this evidence suggests that athletic participation may be negatively linked with such outcomes as involvement and satisfaction with the overall college experience, career maturity, and clarity in educational and occupational plans [11, 18, 33, 34]. Similarly, although athletic participation in college may often function to facilitate the social mobility of individuals from relatively low socioeconomic backgrounds [31], both DuBois [13] and Howard [17] found little to indicate that various objective indexes of career success (for example, job status, managerial effectiveness) are significantly correlated with collegiate athletic participation. A nontrivial problem confronting researchers attempting to estimate the educational impacts actually attributable to athletic participation and not to other aspects of the college experience (that is, athletics'net effect) is that intercollegiate athletes often enter college with a constellation of secondary school experiences, aptitudes, and socioeconomic perspectives that are significantly different from those of nonathletes [16, 27]. This means that, unless one takes such background or precollege characteristics into account, it is likely that comparisons of athletes and nonathletes will simply reflect individual differences at the time of entrance to college rather than the net effects of athletic participation during college [4, 5, 25, 28]. The research that attempts to control for precollege differences between athletes and their nonathlete counter-parts reports positive net impacts for athletic participation in several areas. For example, analyzing different iterations of a national data base from the Cooperative Institutional Research Program, Astin [7], Ryan [30], and Pascarella and Smart [27] report evidence indicating that athletic participation is linked with satisfaction with the overall college experience and may also increase motivation to complete one's degree, persistence in college, and actual bachelor's degree completion. Interestingly, relatively little attention has been paid to the impacts of athletic participation on the various cognitive outcomes of college. The evidence that does exist focuses largely on the impact of being an athlete on academic achievement, operationally defined as cumulative grade point average. The basic generalization that can be made from this small body of research is that, when controls are made for differences in academic aptitude, secondary school achievement, and other salient characteristics, the academic achievement of Intercollegiate athletes is approximately the same as that of their nonathletic counterparts [2, 16, 27, 32, 35]. Moreover, this parity appears to hold even when the comparison groups are nonathletes and athletes in revenue-producing sports such as football and basketball [16, 32, 35]. Clearly, some substantial problems exist in using college grades as an indication of learning and cognitive development during college. As suggested in a review of the literature by Pascarella. and Terenzini [28], the reliability and validity of grades are threatened by a large number of potentially confounding influences. These include the academic selectivity of the institution attended, the student's major field of study, individual course-grading patterns, and even professorial style and personality. Because of these potential confounding influences it is extremely hazardous to make comparisons of student learning or cognitive growth based on college grades, either within or between institutions. …

Psychological Separation, Self‐Control, and Weight Preoccupation Among Elite Women Athletes

Given the paucity of research on the prevalence of eating disorders in college athletes, the authors raised two questions: (a) Is weight preoccupation more prevalent among elite women athletes than among their nonathletic counterparts? (b) Does the empirical link between psychological distress and weight preoccupation pertain to elite athletes as well? Results showed that 10.9% of a sample of elite swimmers could be characterized as “weight preoccupied,” a percentage comparable to the general population of college women. In addition, the athletes reported using significantly more benign than punitive self‐control strategies, suggesting for them, weight preoccupation is a means to an end rather than an indication of an eating disorder. Implications for counseling are discussed.