Nominal Scale Data Research Articles

Pengaruh Pijat Ibu Hamil Terhadap Tingkat Kecemasan Menghadapi Persalinan Pada Ibu Primigravida Trimester III Di PMB Nopi Utami Tangerang

Introduction: Anxiety in facing childbirth in primigravida mothers often occurs. The prevalence of anxiety in Indonesia is 28,7% of 107,000,000 third-trimester pregnant women experiencing anxiety in facing childbirth. The way to deal with anxiety is non-pharmacological therapy, one of which is massage for pregnant women. Methods: Using a quasi-experiment with a pretest and posttest group design means that the researcher made observations before and after the intervention without a control group. The sampling technique used was purposive sampling with a total sample of 30 respondents. Nominal and ordinal scale data variables were analyzed data with the Wilcoxon test with α ₌ 0,05. Results: Showing the effect of massage for pregnant women on the level of anxiety facing childbirth in third-trimester primigravida women with test analysis Wilcoxon obtained a significance value of 0,000 (p < 0,05) and it can be concluded, there is a significant difference the effect of massage for pregnant women on reducing the level of anxiety of pregnant women facing labor before and after being given a massage for pregnant women. Discussion: There is a significant difference in the effect of massage for pregnant women on reducing the level of anxiety of pregnant women in facing labor before and after the intervention. Pregnant women who do massage will get a relaxing effect and prevent excessive anxiety during pregnancy.

MP58-03 THE USEFULNESS OF THE RESECTION PROCESS MAP FOR ROBOT-ASSISTED PARTIAL NEPHRECTOMY FOR RENAL TUMORS: PROPENSITY SCORE MATCHING

You have accessJournal of UrologyCME1 Apr 2023MP58-03 THE USEFULNESS OF THE RESECTION PROCESS MAP FOR ROBOT-ASSISTED PARTIAL NEPHRECTOMY FOR RENAL TUMORS: PROPENSITY SCORE MATCHING Atsushi Okada, Kazuya Ohashi, Hiroya Hashimoto, Yuya Ota, Teruaki Sugino, Shoichiro Iwatsuki, Toshiki Etani, Kazumi Taguchi, Taku Naiki, Shuzo Hamamoto, Ryosuke Ando, Noriyasu Kawai, Keiichi Tozawa, and Takahiro Yasui Atsushi OkadaAtsushi Okada More articles by this author , Kazuya OhashiKazuya Ohashi More articles by this author , Hiroya HashimotoHiroya Hashimoto More articles by this author , Yuya OtaYuya Ota More articles by this author , Teruaki SuginoTeruaki Sugino More articles by this author , Shoichiro IwatsukiShoichiro Iwatsuki More articles by this author , Toshiki EtaniToshiki Etani More articles by this author , Kazumi TaguchiKazumi Taguchi More articles by this author , Taku NaikiTaku Naiki More articles by this author , Shuzo HamamotoShuzo Hamamoto More articles by this author , Ryosuke AndoRyosuke Ando More articles by this author , Noriyasu KawaiNoriyasu Kawai More articles by this author , Keiichi TozawaKeiichi Tozawa More articles by this author , and Takahiro YasuiTakahiro Yasui More articles by this author View All Author Informationhttps://doi.org/10.1097/JU.0000000000003311.03AboutPDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints ShareFacebookLinked InTwitterEmail Abstract INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE: The Aim of this study was to examine the effect of preoperative 3DCT-based tumor resection simulation, Resection Process Map (RPM) on the outcome and complications of Robot-Assisted Partial Nephrectomy (RAPN). METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed 180 patients aged 20 years or older (RPM group; n=100 and non-RPM group; n=80) who underwent RAPN for renal tumors between November 2012 and February 2022. DICOM files of contrast-enhanced CT images were loaded into the medical imaging workstation Ziostation® 2 to construct an RPM. Based on the 3D structure of the arrangement and shape of the vessels and collecting system exposed on the resected surface by removing the “tumor section with a 5 mm-thick renal parenchymal resection margin” on 3D-CT. Outcome analyzes were performed on cases selected by propensity score matching. The primary endpoint was the achievement rate of trifecta ((1) negative resection margins, (2) warm ischemic time (WIT) within 25 minutes, and (3) no perioperative complications), and the Secondary endpoints were intraoperative and postoperative factors (renal function, intraoperative information, surgery-related time, blood loss, pathology, length of hospital stay, and complications). Summary statistics were calculated with and without RPM and compared using Wilcoxon's rank sum test for metric and ordinal data and Fisher's exact probability for nominal scale data. RESULTS: As a result of propensity score matching, 108 cases (RPM; n=54, non-RPM; n=54) were extracted after adjustment for patient and tumor characteristics, experience of operators and assistants, etc. The achievement rate of trifecta as the primary endpoint showed significantly higher in the RPM group (72.2%) than in the non-RPM group (51.9%) (p=0.047) The results of the secondary endpoints showed that the RPM group had fewer complications of Grade III or higher (RPM 1.9% vs non-RPM 18.5%, p=0.008) and shorter postoperative hospital stay (RPM 7.0 days vs non-RPM 8.0 days, p=0.020). CONCLUSIONS: It was suggested that RPM in preoperative 3D-CT of RAPN may not only contribute to the achievement of trifecta but also suppress the occurrence of serious complications by giving the operator detailed information on tumor resection. Source of Funding: Japanese Society of Endourology Grant © 2023 by American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Volume 209Issue Supplement 4April 2023Page: e795 Advertisement Copyright & Permissions© 2023 by American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.MetricsAuthor Information Atsushi Okada More articles by this author Kazuya Ohashi More articles by this author Hiroya Hashimoto More articles by this author Yuya Ota More articles by this author Teruaki Sugino More articles by this author Shoichiro Iwatsuki More articles by this author Toshiki Etani More articles by this author Kazumi Taguchi More articles by this author Taku Naiki More articles by this author Shuzo Hamamoto More articles by this author Ryosuke Ando More articles by this author Noriyasu Kawai More articles by this author Keiichi Tozawa More articles by this author Takahiro Yasui More articles by this author Expand All Advertisement PDF downloadLoading ...

DIFFERENCES IN EMPATHY LEVEL BETWEEN JUNIOR AND SENIOR RESIDENTS, FACULTY OF MEDICINE, DIPONEGORO UNIVERSITY, DR. KARIADI HOSPITAL, SEMARANG

Background: The doctor-patient relationship has an important role in determining the diagnosis and patient management. In communicating with patients, as a doctor must show high empathy for patients. Therefore, it is important to assess the level of empathy for patients with Junior and Senior residents for patients. Aim: Understand the differences in the level of empathy towards patients with junior and senior residents at the Faculty of Medicine, Diponegoro University in Dr. Kariadi Hospital, Semarang. Method: Observational study with cross sectional design. The total sample size was 99 consisting of 35 junior residents and 64 senior residents. Nominal scale data, namely 35 junior residents and 64 senior residents were analyzed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test, while the interval scale data, namely the level of empathy, was analyzed using the unpaired t test. Results: Based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test. data distribution is normal (p = 0.091). In the unpaired t test, there was no significant difference (p = 0.501) between the level of resident education and the value of empathy. Conclusion: There is no significant difference between the education level of residents at the Faculty of Medicine, Diponegoro University in Dr. Kariadi Hospital, Semarang with the value of empathy, but from the value there is a decrease. Keywords: level of empathy; Junior residents; Senior residents; The Jefferson's Scale of Physician Empathy (JSPE).

COMPARISON BETWEEN LAPARATOMY AND LAPARASCOPY COLORECTAL CANCER FOR LENGTH OF HOSPITAL, SURGICAL SITE INFECTION AND INTRAPERITONEUM ADHESION

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the development of cancer from the colon or rectum. There are two kinds of surgery which are laparotomy and laparoscopy. This course of action had a significant effect on the length of stay, surgical site infection, and intraperitoneal adhesion. The purpose of this study is to find out the comparison between laparotomy and colorectal cancer laparoscopy with the length of stay, surgical site infection and intraperitoneal adhesion. The researcher used a cross sectional design. The sample for this study was taken from the medical record data of colorectal cancer patients in Dr. Kariadi Semarang from 2013 to 2018. The data were collected using purposive sampling technique. There were 57 samples that included inclusion and exclusion criteria with 28 details of laparoscopy and 29 samples of laparotomy. Numeric-scale data were tested for normality of data by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and found abnormal data using the Mann Whitney test. Nominal scale data were processed using the non-parametric Chi-Square test and it significant if p<0.05. There is a difference in length of stay and frequency of occurrence of surgical site infections and intraperitoneal adhesion between laparotomy and laparoscopy.

A case-based reasoning system for interior design using a new cosine similarity retrieval algorithm

ABSTRACTDuring concept design stage, a case-based reasoning (CBR) system is good for searching the most suitable interior design drawing case as a preliminary concept drawing design aid to bridge the design requirements gap between the consigner and the designer. In the case base of the system, features of the pre-stored design drawing cases could be characterized by interval, nominal, ordinal and/or ratio scale data. However, the cosine similarity measure used for case reasoning scarcely deals with mixed measurement scales of interval, nominal, ordinal and ratio scale types. Therefore, the objective of this study has been twofold. The first goal was to propose a new cosine similarity retrieval algorithm for case reasoning, in which mixed measurement scales are considered and applied. The second goal was to propose a CBR system and apply the new cosine similarity retrieval algorithm to the search engine of the CBR system for interior design drawing retrieval. Finally, numerical experiments were carried out to demonstrate the capability and effectiveness of the proposed similarity matching algorithm on the case-based reasoning system.

Nursing Ethics Education and Practice in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Whereas nursing profession helps the well and the sick regain independence as rapidly as possible, nursing ethics education provides the basis for effective professional practice.Objectives: This study sought to identify factors affecting nursing ethics education and to describe impact of nursing ethics education on nursing practice. Method: A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted, and two sets of questionnaires were developed and administered, one to 80 final year nursing students, the other to 60 nursing teachers in four universities. The questionnaires had 18 and 21 question items respectively covering demography of the respondents, knowledge from ethics education, factors affecting ethics education and impact of ethics education on nursing practice. Nominal scale data were collected and analyzed on a Microsoft Excel spread sheet. Frequencies and percentages of responses were calculated and tabulated under question categories.Results: Response rate was 86.3% for students and 51.7% for teachers. Although nursing ethics education is provided as a whole semester course, 51% of students and 80% of the teachers erroneously understand ethics as adherence to professional code of conduct. Even so 70% of both respondent groups were prepared to practice effective nursing. Meanwhile 82% of the students and 53% of teachers were of the view that professional negligence is a major ethical issue in practice. Conclusion: The nursing profession is committed to providing ethical practice, but the practitioners and their trainees lack the correct knowledge of what ethics really means. Due to this incorrect knowledge undue attention is being given to professional negligence. It is a challenge and may be giving rise to a protectionist practice. The inclusion of specialists in ethics or moral philosophy to teach nursing ethics as well as the adoption of dialogic and case study methods of teaching will avoid these challenges and enhance the proper understanding and application of principles and theories of ethics in nursing practice.

PRINCIPALS’ PERCEPTION OF CHALLENGES UNDERMINING EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF FREE SECONDARY EDUCATION IN LIKUYANI SUB-COUNTY, KENYA

Free Secondary Education (FSE) in Kenya was introduced in 2018 with an aim of enhancing access to secondary education in the country. This initiative however, has experienced challenges related to funding, infrastructure in schools and staffing shortages. In this regard, the study sought to examine principals’ perception of the challenges with a view to determining the extent to which the challenges could be undermining effective implementation of the programme in Likuyani sub-county. The study used ex-post facto research design. Data was collected by use of a personally delivered questionnaire from 52 principals who were randomly selected from a total population of 60 principals in the study area. Data analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) programme version 20. Nominal scale data was analysed using frequency counts and percentages while ordinal scale data was analysed using t-test and ANOVA statistics. Gender of the principal had no statistically significant influence on principals’ perception of the challenges undermining FSE implementation. However, years of experience had a statistically significant influence on the rating of FSE implementation challenges. The study has proffered a number of recommendation on ways in which implementation of FSE can be enhanced in the study area and by implicating other parts of the country. Article visualizations:

Tips for Distinguishing Nominal and Ordinal Scale Data

Abstract

Distance Metrics and Clustering Methods for Mixed‐type Data

SummaryIn spite of the abundance of clustering techniques and algorithms, clustering mixed interval (continuous) and categorical (nominal and/or ordinal) scale data remain a challenging problem. In order to identify the most effective approaches for clustering mixed‐type data, we use both theoretical and empirical analyses to present a critical review of the strengths and weaknesses of the methods identified in the literature. Guidelines on approaches to use under different scenarios are provided, along with potential directions for future research.

Autosuccession in alpine vegetation: Testing the concept on an altitudinal bioclimatic gradient, Jotunheimen, southern Norway

Specific tests of autosuccession (equivalent to non-replacement change in species composition) are made, in which pioneer communities on roadside verges and areas of patterned ground disturbed by cryoturbation are compared with mature communities on a bioclimatic gradient from sub-alpine woodland (850 m a.s.l) to high-alpine fjellfield (2200 m a.s.l). Autosuccession is quantified for the first time using community similarity coefficients and indices of pioneer persistence and importance, which measure nominal- or ordinal-scale differences in species composition between 65 paired pioneer and mature communities. Linear relationships to altitude, with coefficient and index values of ~90–100% in the upper part of the high-alpine belt to ~10–20% in the sub-alpine zone, indicate a continuum from autosuccession to relay succession (the latter characterised by high species turnover and replacement change). Values based on ordinal-scale data are generally ~10% lower than those based on nominal-scale data and use of pioneer sites from roadside verges result in a ~20% offset relative to pioneer sites from sorted circles (the latter comparison reflecting the effect of substrate differences). Autosuccession appears to be characteristic only at altitudes >2000 m a.s.l. in the upper high-alpine belt. Replacement change increases in importance as a constituent of mixed-mode succession through the conventional mid- and low-alpine belts. Spatial variation in the nature of primary succession along the bioclimatic gradient supports a geo-ecological model of succession with predominantly allogenic controls (climatic stress and high levels of substrate disturbance by cryoturbation) at high altitudes and increasing autogenic controls (biological interactions and substrate stability) at lower altitudes.

Factors Influencing Non-cardiac Side Effects of Dipyridamole When Used for Myocardial Perfusion Stress Testing

PurposeThis study evaluates whether patient demographic information can be used to predict the non-cardiac side effects experienced during myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) procedures using dipyridamole. BackgroundHeart disease is a major cause of death in the industrialized world. MPI of coronary blood flow using radiopharmaceuticals is frequently used to assess coronary artery disease. Pharmacological methods can be used to increase coronary blood flow with vasodilators such as dipyridamole or adenosine, or inotropic and chronotropic agents such as dobutamine or arbutamine. The side effects of these agents are recognized, but little is known about the factors that influence their frequency and severity. MethodsOne hundred and nineteen patients scheduled for myocardial perfusion pharmacological stress testing using dipyridamole participated in the study. Patient demographic data, which included age, sex, body mass index (BMI), diabetic status, smoker status, and daily aspirin usage, were collected before the start of the procedure. Patients underwent a 1-day rest and stress MPI procedure. The radiopharmaceuticals used were 99mTc-Myoview or 201Tl. The pharmacological stress procedure used dipyridamole injections based on body weight. Aminophylline was injected at the end of the stress session. Gated single photon emission computed tomography was performed for both rest and stress images. Once the patients completed the procedure, they were given a questionnaire that asked them to report the severity of any side effects experienced from the dipyridamole. Specific data types determined the statistical test best suited for analysis. The Chi-square test was used to evaluate the nominal scale data (sex, diabetic status, aspirin usage, and smoker status), Mann-Whitney test was used to compare nominal scale data and ordinal scale data (side effect severity), Student’s t-test r was used for ratio scale data (age, BMI, and percent of population), and multiple linear regression and multiple logistic regression tests were used to evaluate multiple variables. ResultsA total of 119 patients were surveyed (58 male, 61 female). The average age was 67.7 years (10.7 year standard deviation). There were no statistically significant differences in the male and female demographics except for daily aspirin usage (more common with males). Headaches were the most common side effect (50% of all patients), followed by dizziness (26%), flushing (24%), chest pain (19%), and nausea (18%). Correlations were found between patients experiencing no side effects with age (r = −0.607) and sex (P = .034); headaches with age (r = −0.706) and BMI (r = 0.464); chest pain with diabetic status (P = .017); dizziness with diabetic status (P = .039); and nausea with age (r = −0.612). ConclusionSide effects of dipyridamole are generally known, but the factors influencing incidence and severity are not. This study has shown that patient demographic information normally gathered before MPI procedures can help determine the frequency and severity of some side effects. Providing more accurate information to a patient on the possible side effects could help reduce patient anxiety and improve patient cooperation.

Geostatistics explained: an introductory guide for earth scientists

Preface 1. Introduction 2. 'Doing science' - hypotheses, experiments and disproof 3. Collecting and displaying data 4. Introductory concepts of experimental design 5. Doing science responsibly and ethically 6. Probability helps you make a decision about your results 7. Working from samples - data, populations and statistics 8. Normal distributions - tests for comparing the means of one and two samples 9. Type 1 and type 2 error, power and sample size 10. Single factor analysis of variance 11. Multiple comparisons after ANOVA 12. Two-factor analysis of variance 13. Important assumptions of analysis of variance: transformations and a test for equality of variances 14. Two-factor analysis of variance without replication, and nested analysis of variance 15. Relationships between variables: linear correlation and linear regression 16. Linear regression 17. Non-parametric statistics 18. Non-parametric tests for nominal scale data 19. Non-parametric tests for ratio, interval or ordinal scale data 20. Introductory concepts of multivariate analysis 21. Introductory concepts of sequence analysis 22. Introductory concepts of spatial analysis 23. Choosing a test Appendix A. Critical values of chi-square, Student's t and F Appendix B. Answers to questions References Index.

Nonparametric statistics for non-statisticians: a step-by-step approach

Preface. 1 Nonparametric Statistics: An Introduction. 1.1 Objectives. 1.2 Introduction. 1.3 The Nonparametric Statistical Procedures Presented in this Book. 1.4 Ranking Data. 1.5 Ranking Data with Tied Values. 1.6 Counts of Observations. 1.7 Summary. 1.8 Practice Questions. 1.9 Solutions to Practice Questions. 2 Testing Data for Normality. 2.1 Objectives. 2.2 Introduction. 2.3 Describing Data and the Normal Distribution. 2.4 Computing and Testing Kurtosis and Skewness for Sample Normality. 2.5 The Kolmogorov-Smirnov One-Sample Test. 2.6 Summary. 2.7 Practice Questions. 2.8 Solutions to Practice Questions. 3 Comparing Two Related Samples: The Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test. 3.1 Objectives. 3.2 Introduction. 3.3 Computing the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Statistic. 3.4 Examples from the Literature. 3.5 Summary. 3.6 Practice Questions. 3.7 Solutions to Practice Questions. 4 Comparing Two Unrelated Samples: The Mann-Whitney U -Test. 4.1 Objectives. 4.2 Introduction. 4.3 Computing the Mann-Whitney U -Test Statistic. 4.4 Examples from the Literature. 4.5 Summary. 4.6 Practice Questions. 4.7 Solutions to Practice Questions. 5 Comparing More Than Two Related Samples: The Friedman Test. 5.1 Objectives. 5.2 Introduction. 5.3 Computing the Friedman Test Statistic. 5.4 Examples from the Literature. 5.5 Summary. 5.6 Practice Questions. 5.7 Solutions to Practice Questions. 6 Comparing More than Two Unrelated Samples: The Kruskal-Wallis H -Test. 6.1 Objectives. 6.2 Introduction. 6.3 Computing the Kruskal-Wallis H -Test Statistic. 6.4 Examples from the Literature. 6.5 Summary. 6.6 Practice Questions. 6.7 Solutions to Practice Questions. 7 Comparing Variables of Ordinal or Dichotomous Scales: Spearman Rank-Order, Point-Biserial, and Biserial Correlations. 7.1 Objectives. 7.2 Introduction. 7.3 The Correlation Coefficient. 7.4 Computing the Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient. 7.5 Computing the Point-Biserial and Biserial Correlation Coefficients. 7.6 Examples from the Literature. 7.7 Summary. 7.8 Practice Questions. 7.9 Solutions to Practice Questions. 8 Tests for Nominal Scale Data: Chi-Square and Fisher Exact Test. 8.1 Objectives. 8.2 Introduction. 8.3 The Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test. 8.4 The Chi-Square Test for Independence. 8.5 The Fisher Exact Test. 8.6 Examples from the Literature. 8.7 Summary. 8.8 Practice Questions. 8.9 Solutions to Practice Questions. 9 Test For Randomness: The Runs Test. 9.1 Objectives. 9.2 Introduction. 9.3 The Runs Test for Randomness. 9.4 Examples from the Literature. 9.5 Summary. 9.6 Practice Questions. 9.7 Solutions to Practice Questions. Appendix A: SPSS at a Glance. A.1 Introduction. A.2 Opening SPSS. A.3 Inputting Data. A.4 Analyzing Data. A.5 The SPSS Output. Appendix B: Tables of Critical Values. Table B.1: The Normal Distribution. Table B.2: The Chi-Square Distribution. Table B.3: Critical Values for the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test Statistics, T . Table B.4: Critical Values for the Mann-Whitney U -Test Statistic. Table B.5: Critical Values for the Friedman Test Statistic, F r . Table B.6: The Critical Values for the Kruskal-Wallis H -Test Statistic. Table B.7: Critical Values for the Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient, r s . Table B.8: Critical Values for the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient, r. Table B.9: Factorials. Table B.10: Critical Values for the Runs Test for Randomness. Bibliography. Index.

The Chi-Square Test and Accompanying Effect Size Indices

In a previous column, we described statistical methods used to test the significance of a relationship between two variables that were either continuous or had many ordered categories or levels. The purpose of the present column is to describe a statistical test, the Pearson chi-square (χ 2 ) test for independence, that examines the relationship between two variables that are scaled at the nominal level. The variables can be dichotomous or have a few nonordered categories. Nominal scale data provide less information than interval or ordinal scale data. The finer the gradations on the measurement scale, the more information is transmitted, as long as there is evidence for reliability and validity. We recommend that you not divide your data into a few categories if the data are continuous or have a number of ordered levels, unless the measure to be divided has been validated against an external criterion that justifies “cut points.” When there are more than two categories of at least one of the variables and these categories are ordered (i.e., the levels or categories differ quantitatively), such as education level, you would lose power if you used a χ 2 test to analyze the data. It is recommended that these data be analyzed by using nonparametric statistics for ordinal data. Examples of these statistics (discussed in previous columns) are a Spearman rank order correlation, if both variables have more than two ordered levels, or a Mann-Whitney U test, if one of the two variables has only two levels and the other is ordered. In this column, the data to be considered are frequencies. Specifically, our interest is in how many people (the frequency count) fall into a particular category, relative to a different category. There are two major requirements of the χ 2 test. The

Reliability of Nominal Data Based on Qualitative Judgments

Most research related to the reliability and validity of marketing measures has focused on multi-item quantitative scales. In contrast, little attention has been given to the quality of nominal scale data developed from qualitative judgments. Judgment-based (“coded”) nominal scale data are important and frequently used in marketing research-for example, in analysis of consumer responses to open-ended survey questions, in cognitive response research, in meta-analysis, and in content analysis. The authors address opportunities and challenges involved in evaluating and improving the quality of judgment-based nominal scale data, with specific emphasis on the use of multiple judges. They review approaches commonly used in other disciplines, then develop a new index of reliability that is more appropriate for the type of interjudge data typically found in marketing studies. Data from a cognitive response experiment are used to illustrate the new index and compare it with other common measures. The authors conclude with suggestions on how to improve the design of studies that rely on judgment-coded data.

A computer program to compute measures of response agreement for nominal scale data obtained from two judges

A computer program to compute measures of response agreement for nominal scale data obtained from two judges

A Nonparametric Coefficient Of Internal Consistency.

This paper discusses a frequency based, nonparametric measure of internal test consistency, referred to herein as coefficient alphaτ, which allows facile measurement of the significance of differences in internal consistency between tests, administrations, or scoring methods. It also permits analysis of psychological tests containing items with discrete categories of response, yielding nominal scale data. Use of alphaτ encourages flexibility in test construction, since multiple dimensions can be incorporated into individual test items.

Statistical Treatment of Nominal Numbers

An attempt is made to find an answer to Lord's parable of the “football numbers” by demonstrating that he ignored the well known principle that a measurement operation should be consistent over allowable transformations of scale. An example is given to demonstrate that two allowable transformations of nominal scale data may lead to different statistical results.

Applications of Information and Graph Theory to Multivariate Geomorphological Analyses

Existing methods of examining the interrelationships among variables (R-mode) and among individual objects (Q-mode) demand measurements on an interval or ratio scale and are frequently not strictly applicable to many geomorphological studies where, for a variety of reasons, lower measuring scales are employed. By contrast, the information- and graph-theory methods use nominal scale data. Their use is illustrated by a discussion based on a 41 (objects) X 12 (variables) matrix relating to the cross-valley moraines of Baffin Island. The variables measure such factors as: moraine shape, location, till fabrics, and clast roundness. The information-theoretic approach generates a measure of distance (D) and computes the amount of shared information between the variables. Unconditional and conditional probability Tables are used to assess the stochastic dependence among states (i.e., small, medium, large) of two variables. Graphtheoretic methods are used to develop a measure of similarity that is then used in a classification of the moraines. The three characters that share most information are: two measures of clast roundness and the dip pattern of till fabric. Two classifications are developed that share considerable information with moraine shape and location within the valley. The study indicates that "hooked" and "asymmetric" moraines are quite different from each other. Since the techniques use nominal data, they should have general applicability in several fields of geology-specifically geomorphology, quaternary geology, and paleontology.

Measuring the Permeability of Occupational Structures: An Information-Theoretic Approach

Methods deriving from information theory are proposed for the analysis of social mobility matrices. They permit us to give quantitative answers to such questionsas, "Given a man's social origin, how much uncertainty is there about what his own social position will be?" Other methods would undoubtedly be more appropriate whenever social positions are measured on an interval scale, but the assumptions they require are often implausible. The methods herein are designed for the more usual situation where positions are merely grouped in categories which may not even form an ordinal scale: nominal scale data are treated as nominal scale data. These methods are used to re-analyze several intergenerational occupational mobility matrices which appear in the literature and to make comparisons between such matrices.