Nomadic Migration Research Articles

Cost of resilience to climate change: migration, conflicts, and epidemics in imperial China

Abstract A growing scholarship is focusing on the cost of social resilience to climate change in the past. Among different resilience strategies, migration could be effective for nomadic societies despite the potential consequences of conflicts and epidemics. Thus, this study utilizes historical records to statistically investigate the linkages among nomadic migrations, nomad–farmer conflicts, and epidemics under climate change and population pressure in imperial China (200 BCE–1840 CE) on the national and provincial scales. The current study will first attempt to empirically identify and analyze the cost of resilience to climate change mainly in the direction from nomadic societies to agrarian societies in historical China. In particular, we show the cost of nomadic migration passed in a chain mechanism as ‘climate change → nomadic migration → nomad–farmer conflicts → epidemics.’ Nomad–farmer conflicts were one direct effect of nomadic migration, while epidemics were an indirect one. Spatially, more provinces were affected under the direct effect than under the indirect effect. Furthermore, the first level of chain ‘nomadic migration → nomad–farmer conflicts’ covers more provinces than the second level ‘nomad–farmer conflicts → epidemics’. These empirical results remind us to identify and avoid the cost of resilience as early as possible before the cost may transmit further in a chain manner. However, the provinces outside the concentrated nomad–farmer conflicts did not demonstrate significant linkages between conflicts and epidemics, which highlights the importance of peaceful cross-civilizational and inter-societal interactions against common challenges of climate change. This study with a cross-scale perspective in geography provides a theoretical implication to improve the current understanding on climate justice and have a practical value to avoid or minimize the cost of resilience.

Russian-speaking migration to Latin America: new trends

The article considers new trends of migration from the former Soviet Union to Latin American countries. The main channels of Russian-speaking migration are highlighted: marital, fertile, labour, digital nomadic migration, forced migrants. The statistical data of Latin American countries and the data of sociological survey of Russian-speaking migrants in Brazil and Argentina are analyzed. Estimates on the size of the Russian-speaking population in key Latin American countries are given. The role of Internet communications in the adaptation and consolidation of Russian-speaking migrants in the context of the idea of forming a “Russian-speaking social space” is highlighted. The article also describes the key barriers (administrative, cultural, linguistic) faced by migrants from the former Soviet Union in the process of integration into the host societies of Latin American countries.

РОЛЯТА НА БЪЛГАРИТЕ В ХУНСКАТА СТЕПНА ИМПЕРИЯ. ОПИТ ЗА ПРЕОЦЕНКА

The article provides a brief overview of the most important aspects of the development of the Hunnic theory of the origin of the Bulgars in modern Bulgarian medieval studies, and examines the situation on the Balkan Peninsula immediately after Attila's death.The popular theories about the leading role of climatic factors in causing nomadic migrations, about the key importance of the Huns for the destruction of the Western Roman Empire, and about the large-scale influence of the Bulgars in the Hunnic Steppe Empire in the 5thcentury, have been disputed.

Zones of compounded informality: Migrants in the megacity

AbstractThis paper introduces the term zones of compounded informality to demarcate locations wherein regulatory exclusions in distinct domains interact to escalate the impact of exclusions for people who live and work in these areas. Based upon a study of India's Delhi, National Capital Region (Delhi‐NCR), I explain how the interaction of flexible planning and employment in particular locales produce zones of compounded informality as a technique of governance. Circular migrant workers in Delhi‐NCR overwhelmingly live and work in these zones, wherein unstable employment and housing contribute to nomadic migration. Legal exclusion from housing protections interacts with other procedural pathways, creating barriers to accessing social protection and citizenship rights. Based on ethnographic fieldwork, including participant observation, interviews, focus group discussions (FGDs), and a survey of 981 workers, I consider how zones of compounded informality in Delhi‐NCR interact with India's Aadhar biometric identification system to variegate access to the franchise and Targeted Public Distribution System (PDS) for migrant and other low‐wage workers.

Origins of East Caucasus Gene Pool: Contributions of Autochthonous Bronze Age Populations and Migrations from West Asia Estimated from Y-Chromosome Data.

The gene pool of the East Caucasus, encompassing modern-day Azerbaijan and Dagestan populations, was studied alongside adjacent populations using 83 Y-chromosome SNP markers. The analysis of genetic distances among 18 populations (N = 2216) representing Nakh-Dagestani, Altaic, and Indo-European language families revealed the presence of three components (Steppe, Iranian, and Dagestani) that emerged in different historical periods. The Steppe component occurs only in Karanogais, indicating a recent medieval migration of Turkic-speaking nomads from the Eurasian steppe. The Iranian component is observed in Azerbaijanis, Dagestani Tabasarans, and all Iranian-speaking peoples of the Caucasus. The Dagestani component predominates in Dagestani-speaking populations, except for Tabasarans, and in Turkic-speaking Kumyks. Each component is associated with distinct Y-chromosome haplogroup complexes: the Steppe includes C-M217, N-LLY22g, R1b-M73, and R1a-M198; the Iranian includes J2-M172(×M67, M12) and R1b-M269; the Dagestani includes J1-Y3495 lineages. We propose J1-Y3495 haplogroup's most common lineage originated in an autochthonous ancestral population in central Dagestan and splits up ~6 kya into J1-ZS3114 (Dargins, Laks, Lezgi-speaking populations) and J1-CTS1460 (Avar-Andi-Tsez linguistic group). Based on the archeological finds and DNA data, the analysis of J1-Y3495 phylogeography suggests the growth of the population in the territory of modern-day Dagestan that started in the Bronze Age, its further dispersal, and the microevolution of the diverged population.

Stone Print from the Karakengir River

The meaning of the article is determined by the necessity to introduce into scientific discourse a rare monument of sigillography – a stone carved print. The print was found on the right bank of the Karakengir River, 15 km northeast of the city of Satpayev, Ulytau Region, Republic of Kazakhstan. Currently it is stored in the Karaganda Regional Museum of History and Local Lore. Rectangular symbols which remind of Phag-pa or Mongolian square writing are carved on the front side of this matrix. Consultations were held with orientalists and linguists from Russia and abroad for attribution, linguistic, textual analysis. As a result of these consultations, it turned out that this is not a Mongolian square letter and the inscription on the print is not readable. Probably, the print cutter did not know the Mongolian square writing and reproduced the text on the front panel from memory, making misrepresentation. It is assumed that this print could belong to one of the Kalmyk or Dzhungar high-ranking persons of the 17th–18th centuries. It could have been lost during the Last Great Nomadic Migration – the exodus of the Kalmyks from the Russian Empire to their historical homeland in Dzungaria in 1771. The author expresses hope for the prospect of publication which will make the print item available for further research of the mysterious inscription.

BETWEEN SEDENTISM AND NOMADISM: LIFEWAYS ON THE FOREST-STEPPE FRONTIER OF THE LEFT BANK OF DNIEPER IN SCYTHIAN TIME

The paper is devoted to the issue of reconstruction of the lifeways and economics of the part of tribes in the forest-steppe region of the Left Bank of Dnieper during the Scythian period. The question of the role of nomads and semi nomads in the ethnic and cultural history of the population is one of the most important, since the correct assessment of the interaction between the forest-steppe agricultural population and the different groups of nomads depends on the reconstruction of ethnic processes in the Left-bank forest-steppe du­ring Scythian time. It can be assumed that the Dnieper Left-bank forest-steppe by its environment and convenient ways attracted both farmers and nomads. This led to the use of several ecological niches, which was reflected in the spread of the settlement structure of farmers in the areas that are most suitable for agriculture (chernozem soils of various types) and rich in resources for life, construction, etc. (access to water, forest areas). The nomadic population that has subjugated farmers has repeatedly penetrated the region several times. Nomads mostly used the steppe areas and floodplains of the region, leaving behind the main type of sites — the mounds, burial rites of which are fundamentally different from the settled agricultural population.
 The study proposes the conditional use of the term «nomads» for groups of mobile pastoralists only at the time of their penetration into the region. In the new conditions, their lifeways significantly changed. The term reflects a transition to mobile stockbreeding within a limited territory of movement, permanent winter houses near the settlements and hillforts of the settled population of the region, prevailing transhumance, etc. At the moment, the term «semi nomads» is the most adequate for those groups of mobile pastoralists who remained in the forest-steppe region of the Left Bank of Dnieper during the Scythian time. Judging by the flat necropolis in Barvinkova Gora tract near Bilsk hillfort, a part of the migrants from the south turned to a sedentary way of life in the 4th century BC. In general, it can be assumed that the migration of nomads into the region significantly impacted lifeways of the local sedentary population.

Event processes of the ethno-archaeological history of the Crimean penninsula

The results of studies on the creation of an ethnoarchaeological periodization of the Crimean Peninsula, created in order to identify and ascertain the formation of local indigenous groups of the population that are ancestors for the autochthonous population of Crimea, are presented. The purpose of the study is to trace which of the local indigenous groups of the population at time intervals (Bronze Age, Iron Age, Middle Ages) were inherited in subsequent ethnic groups and sub-ethnic groups of Crimea. Throughout the Stone Age, including the Eneolithic, information about migration processes was practically not covered in the specialized literature, since another direction prevailed: the study of places of concentration and distribution of the indigenous population. This time is considered as a pre-ethnic period of history. During the Bronze and Iron Ages, the geographical position of the peninsula and favorable landscape conditions served as important factors for numerous migrations from the north and south, sea and land. This period is called by us early ethnic and is characterized by the frequent introduction of new tribes and peoples, which is accompanied by assimilation processes for the indigenous population. The ongoing migrations of nomads are turning the territory of Crimea into a transit space, which is characterized by great ethnic diversity. The Middle Ages of the Crimea is characterized by an increase in the number of migrations, including modern and recent times, so the period was called multi-ethnic.

Этническая ситуация в Северном Причерноморье и Приазовье по данным Певтингеровой карты

The purpose of the article is to determine the ethnic situation in the steppe zone of the Northern Black Sea and the Azov Sea according to the Tabula Peutingeriana and to date this information. The article avoids the cities of the Bosporus and the North Caucasus. Changes of the ethnic and political situation in the steppe zone of Europe under the influence of migrations of nomads and other peoples (for example, Goths) permit to date the information on the Tabula Peutingeriana. The attention is mostly paid to the locations of such peoples as Roxolani, Sarmatians of Central Europe, Maeotians, Caucasian Alans. At the same time such ethnonyms like Siraces, Aspurgiani, Psaccani, being in accordance with anticient tradition, prevent narrowing the chronological framework of the Tabula’s data. The Maeotians of the Lower Don existed from the boundary of the two eras till the middle of the 3rd century. The Roxolani dwelled between the Carpathian Mountains and the Dnieper from the middle of the 1st century to about the middle of the 3rd century. Caucasian Alans could not appear on the Tabula earlier than the 2nd century. Archeological realities permit to supplement and arrange the ethnic situation. Also, the author draws attention to the peoples which are not present on the Tabula Peutingeriana, such as Goths, Alans and Aorsi in the Northern Black Sea, and Huns. All these data permit to suggest that the Tabula shows the location of the peoples of the Northern Black Sea and the Azov Sea between mid-2nd and mid-3rd centuries or maybe rather between the boundary of the 2nd/3rd centuries and the first half of the 3rd century. One can clearly see that the central idea of the Tabula Peutingeriana is its being a comprehensive itinerary, a bunch of the roads connecting the Roman Empire and the Orient. Therefore, everything behind the road net, the Tabula’s edge, its periphery, is not very important. Its source was not a literary tradition (like in the case of Ammianus Marcellinus’ work), but rather more contemporaneous data. Apparently, the author of the version of the 3rd century desired to fill the space of the oikumene with relevant information, but did not delve into the information on the regions distant from the road net.

The outskirts of the Crimean Khanate (on the question of the mainland territories of the Crimean Khanate)

The article deals with issues related to the development of the possessions of the Crimean Khanate of the XV-XVIII centuries. Located outside the Crimean Peninsula, which, unfortunately, with the exception of a few researches, have not received proper coverage in historical literature. Among them are the processes of expanding territorial borders, the emergence of settlements and issues of administrative management. To cover this topic, materials from written and cartographic sources were involved, as well as the achievements of historians who touched on issues of historical geography were used. In the course of the study, the author comes to the conclusion that, unlike the territory of the Crimean Peninsula, where an agricultural culture was formed, contributing to the development of an administrative system with clear delineations into districts, the mainland possessions of the Khans were inhabited by nomads, in which the traditional order of governance was preserved. Nevertheless, we cannot say that the vast territory from the Dniester to the Don was considered by the Tatars exclusively as a place of nomadic grazing. Analysis of the sources showed the presence of stationary settlements and fortifications on the banks of the Dnieper River, which indicates the cultural development of these lands. For the Crimean Khans, the preservation and expansion of dominance in the forest-steppe zone of Eastern Europe was extremely important, since it strengthened the security of the interior of the country and expanded the military capabilities of the state due to the migration of nomads to these territories. In addition, the Khanate controlled overland trade routes leading to the Black Sea ports on the peninsula.

The Political History of Savromat-Sarmatic Tribes

The territory of Western Kazakhstan was considered an important part of Asia, where nomadic tribes lived from the Bronze Age. The region was located at the crossroads of Asia and Europe, played the role of an intercontinental bridge, and over a number of historical periods was a witness to important historical events. From the Iron Age to the Middle Ages, it was an important region where many cultures appeared and historical mass migrations of nomads took place. One of the cultures that developed in the region was formed in the Iron Age - the Sauromat- Sarmatian culture. Among researchers, there is still no common opinion about the time when the Sauromat-Sarmatian tribes appeared on the historical arena, about the territory of residence, the chronological framework of culture, and this is undoubtedly one of the important problems that need to be solved. Therefore, we chose these questions as the main goal of our scientific research. Studying written and archaeological data, we tried to systematically explain the appearance of these tribes in the historical arena, the political history of the tribes. In addition, we examined the stages of life of the Sauromat-Sarmatian tribes, dividing them into four periods and identified the characteristics of cultures.

Genomics divergence of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis isolated from naturally fermented dairy products

Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis (L. lactis subsp. lactis) is commonly found in naturally fermented dairy products (NFDPs). This subspecies is of high economic value due to its wide application in dairy industry. However, the genetic background and evolutionary history of L. lactis subsp. lactis are still poorly understood, analysis of its genetic background and functional genome will lay a genetic foundation for its application. This study analyzed the whole genomes of 227 novel L. lactis subsp. lactis isolated from NFDPs and investigated the genetic history of this subspecies from a population genetic perspective. These strains were classified into four phylogenetically distinct groups, which were likely derived from only a few wild ancestors through three divergence events, resulting in genetic and phenotypic divergence. Functional genomic analysis found that the divergence events caused strong lineage-specific selection for carbohydrate utilization and lactic acid production genes. Moreover, the time of the divergence coincided with mass migration of nomads due to climate change and decrease in average annual temperature, suggesting that these drastic environmental changes might be evolutionary drivers of the divergence. Genome-wide association analysis results showed that the single nucleic acid polymorphic loci we associated with pepF and CoiA genes were significantly correlated with fermentation capability, and based on this, a rapid screening model for potential starter strains was constructed. Our findings shed light on the evolutionary history and genomic diversity of NFDP-originated L. lactis subsp. lactis, and provide a new insight for screening strains with excellent characteristics.

Social environment influences termination of nomadic migration.

The final stage of migration, when animals terminate migratory movements and transition to a more sedentary state, remains the least understood phase of migration. Whereas migrants that return to the same locations each year may use mechanisms associated with locating a specific destination, migrants with low site fidelity, such as nomadic migrants, may rely on local environmental cues to determine when to cease migratory movements. Using an experiment with captive birds, we tested whether the presence of a conspecific influences the termination of migration, indicated by changes in behaviour and physiology, in a nomadic migrant (the pine siskin, Spinus pinus). We paired migratory birds with a non-migratory individual or left migratory and non-migratory individuals unpaired. Migratory paired birds had a significant decline in nocturnal activity immediately after pairing and activity levels remained lower two weeks later, with significant declines in energetic reserves and flight muscle size also observed. By contrast, migratory unpaired birds maintained high levels of activity and energetic reserves. These results provide evidence for a role of the social environment in migratory termination decisions. Social cues may be particularly useful in nomadic migrants, such as pine siskins, to facilitate settling in high quality, but unfamiliar, habitats.

Седентаризация средневековых кочевников Восточной Европы: понимание и проявление

Research objectives: To demonstrate that, contrary to the opinion of many researchers of the history and culture of nomads during the Middle Ages, sedentarization (the transition from a nomadic to settled lifestyle) was neither an end in itself nor the result of a natural historical development of nomadic societies. Research materials: This study is based on a source analysis of archaeological data, medieval written sources, and the works of travelers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries who described the lifestyle and mentality of the Turkic and Mongol nomads who lived in the steppes of Eurasia at that time. Results and novelty of the research: Soviet researchers explained the gradual but sequential transition of nomads to a settled lifestyle through the methodology of a three-staged scheme: 1) the tabor stage represented by rare archaeological sites in the steppe; 2) the semi-nomadic stage with the appearance of stationary burial mounds and settlements in the steppe, which marked the places of nomadic wintering; 3) the stage of settlement with the appearance of nomadic burial grounds near cities and the deposition of elements of the material culture of nomads in the cultural layers of medieval cities. However, an in-depth analysis of traces of nomadic culture in the territory of the Bulgar and Golden Horde cities shows that they occupied an extremely insignificant place in the general complex of urban culture. Medieval narrative sources indicate the indifferent attitude of the bulk of nomads to cities. The observations of travelers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries confirm and supplement the information recorded by medieval authors. Historical, ethnographic, and sociological data of domestic and foreign researchers in the first half of the twentieth century indicate that the sedentarization of Kazakhs, Kalmyks, and Mongols was a consequence of the social policy of the Soviet government, which was interested in establishing strict control over nomads. As such, the author drew the following conclusions: 1) the “first stage of nomadism” was actually the migration of nomads in search of new habitats; 2) the “second stage” was the most natural and the only possible form of existence of nomadic communities in the natural and geographical conditions of the Eurasian steppes (those researchers are correct who thought and still think so); 3) there was no “third stage of nomadism” at all, since nomads cease to be nomads per se after their forced transition to this stage.

Avoiding tensional equilibrium in cells migrating on a matrix with cell-scale stiffness-heterogeneity

Intracellular stresses affect various cell functions, including proliferation, differentiation and movement, which are dynamically modulated in migrating cells through continuous cell-shaping and remodeling of the cytoskeletal architecture induced by spatiotemporal interactions with extracellular matrix stiffness. When cells migrate on a matrix with cell-scale stiffness-heterogeneity, which is a common situation in living tissues, what intracellular stress dynamics (ISD) emerge? In this study, to explore this issue, finite element method-based traction force microscopy was applied to cells migrating on microelastically patterned gels. Two model systems of microelastically patterned gels (stiff/soft stripe and stiff triangular patterns) were designed to characterize the effects of a spatial constraint on cell-shaping and of the presence of different types of cues to induce competing cellular taxis (usual and reverse durotaxis) on the ISD, respectively. As the main result, the prolonged fluctuation of traction stress on a whole-cell scale was markedly enhanced on single cell-size triangular stiff patterns compared with homogeneous gels. Such ISD enhancement was found to be derived from the interplay between the nomadic migration of cells to regions with different degrees of stiffness and domain shape-dependent traction force dynamics, which should be an essential factor for keeping cells far from tensional equilibrium.

Quantification of temperature and precipitation changes in northern China during the “5000-year” Chinese History

High-quality paleoclimate reconstructions can provide crucial climate context to test the hypothesis of climatic impact on historical culture changes. Here we report high-resolution and quantitative temperature and precipitation records covering the entire “5000-year” Chinese history in northern China. Our temperature record shows a slight decrease before 1800 cal yr BP and a ∼4 °C rapid cooling afterwards, superimposed with four major ∼2–3 °C centennial-scale cold events, potentially corresponding to the widespread North Atlantic ice-rafted debris Bond events. While precipitation record shows high value before 3000 cal yr BP, and a gradual decrease of ∼250 mm with two distinct ∼100 mm centennial-scale dry intervals after 1100 cal yr BP. Our data not only provide a more complete climate background for Chinese dynasties, but show the coincidence in the timing between abrupt cold and/or dry events and large-scale social unrests and southern migration of nomads. This finding reveals climate fluctuations, in particular variations in temperature, played an important role in affecting Chinese historical cultural changes.

Ногайская Кубань и проблемы внутриполитического развития Крымского ханства середины XVIII в.

Introduction. The article chronologically covers the 1740s and 1750s. The period witnessed a rise in confrontational processes in the Crimean Khanate that were intensified by the growing dissatisfaction of the Nogai hordes with restrictive policies of the Crimean Khans. The opposition reached its peak by the late 1750s, and was marked by the Nogai rebellion of 1758 against the Crimean Khan Halim Giray and his sons. Many Kuban Nogais led by the ex-serasker of Kuban Seadet Giray took an active part in the revolt. Goals. The paper seeks to examine the role and place of Nogai Kuban in cross-border processes along the Northwest Caucasus that resulted from nomadic migrations. It is planned to identify the impact of Nogai Kuban (Kuban Horde) on the political and other processes that accompanied activities of the ruling Crimean Khans aimed at strengthening governing structures of their own within the Nogais hordes. Materials and Methods. The article analyzes 18th-century written historical sources, including ones newly introduced into scientific discourse. Those are mainly Russian official papers stored at federal and public archives of the country. The study employs special history research methods, such as the historical/genetic and historical/comparative ones. Results. The Kuban Horde played a key role in the provincial life of Kuban Region, a periphery of the Crimean Khanate. In the mid-18th century, the territory was being increasingly involved into state integration processes by the Girays. For example, the institution of serasker-sultans in Kuban was established. Various representatives of the Giray dynasty actively struggled for the position, including the family of Sultan Bahti Giray that had settled in Kuban. Conclusions. The discovered facts confirm the significance of Sultan Bahti Giray’s family in the life of Kuban Region after 1729. Kuban Nogais actively participated in the Crimean Khanate’s internal policies, and opposed the heavy-handed administrative decisions of the Girays. Their dissatisfaction was actively fueled by ex-seraskers, Gazi Giray and Seadet Giray, the sons of Sultan Bahti Giray. The paper proves Seadet Giray enjoyed a mass support of Kuban Nogais, which largely predetermined ― through pressure on kalga-sultan ― his appointment as serasker in 1755. The study reveals an instant connection between the ‘revolt’ of Bahti Giray’s sons against the Crimean Khan ― and subsequent activities of Kuban Nogais in the rebellion of 1758.

Climate and nomadic migration in a nonlinear world: evidence of the historical China

This paper deals with climate change and nomadic migration relationships at a long term and wide geographical scale using a statistical approach in the vein of Bai and Kung (2011). More precisely, it presents a reassessment of these relationships in a nonlinear world using threshold regressions, time varying-copula and nonlinear causality tests. The large amount of historical records in China enables us to re-interpret the link between climate and historical social dynamics (Hsiang et al., 2013) through different regimes of temperatures and precipitations.

Front and Back Covers, Volume 36, Number 4. August 2020

Front and back cover caption, volume 36 issue 4Front coverBUSHFIRES IN AUSTRALIAThe exhausted firefighter emerged as a powerful symbolic figure in the bushfire crisis which brought widespread and unprecedented devastation to vast areas of land on the Australian continent in late 2019 and early 2020. In the front cover picture to this edition of AT, taken by the photojournalist Alex Ellinghausen, a sole firefighter stands as an iconic testament to the fortitude and commitment displayed by members of the volunteer forces who laboured in several states to save their rural communities from destruction. For their sterling efforts ‘in the line of fire’, the firefighters were celebrated as local heroes in the small towns and hamlets from which they were drawn. On a couple of occasions, fortuitously captured by itinerant television crews, this heroic status was magnified when firefighters forthrightly told visiting politicians, including the prime minister, that they were unwelcome and would be much better off elsewhere. In this issue, Adrian Peace argues that these firefighters were giving vent to a widespread sense of alienation from Australia's political elite, a feeling which was substantially compounded as notable cultural differences between local people and leading politicians came to the fore over the significance of the bushfires and the meaning to be attached to them. This cultural divide was expressed in a number of ways, but especially when addressing the extent to which climate change might have contributed to the exceptional duration, intensity and destructive capacity of the 2019–2020 megafires. Whilst leading figures within the federal government repeatedly minimized, or denied outright, the contribution that global warming might have made to these catastrophic developments, the likely part played by climate change remained uppermost in the minds of many local residents, including the firefighters who were their relatives, neighbours and friends.Back coverCOVID‐19 AMONG REINDEER HERDERSKira Khudi, during the nomadic migration of her herd through the gas deposit in Bovanenkovo, Yamal Peninsula.Yamal‐Nenets reindeer nomads in the Arctic tundra value their mobility. That is how they adapt to changing conditions in their natural and social environment. With large reindeer herds, it is only through the flexible use of their lands and regular adjustments to seasonal migration routes that the herders survive ‘bad years’ (veuvako po).However, the number of ‘bad years’ recently has posed a major challenge to their continued survival as nomads. Swift movement from endangered sites to safe pastures once helped to preserve the health and condition of animals and households. Sudden rain‐on‐snow events make grazing impossible and need to be avoided. Distancing from epidemic centres, including Covid‐19, anthrax and hoof‐rot disease has served to limit their impact.The intrusion of the gas industry into the herders’ domain is now curtailing their nomadic freedoms even more. The cumulative impact of disasters, epidemics and climate change, together with changing state resource governance is forcing herders to increasingly sedentarize, as their mitigation strategies are no longer a match for all these forces combined.In this issue, Stammler and Ivanova show how the Soviet persecution of shamans has led to a loss of spiritual confidence, which has proved fertile ground for conspiracy theories among herders. Shamans used to be consulted to diagnose disasters and how to respond to them, but local perceptions of disasters are now changing. Dialogue with the spirits used to be a source of Nenets self‐confidence, but in the absence of shamans, severe misfortunes are increasingly believed to be the work of superior, unknown and uncontrollable forces.

Socio-Economic Impact of Seasonal Employment on the Nomads with Reference to Date’s Fruits: A Case Study of District Khairpur

Hunger starvation, natural disasters, droughts and the clan enmities make people to migrate from one region to another region. Also sometimes people migrate as they inherit the habit, of migration. This research paper is aimed to study the socio-economic implication of the seasonal employment in Khairpur in date’s fruit season regarding nomads coming in the season and the implications of the migration on the life of the indigenous people as well as on the nomad’s life. The subject material has been collected through the field survey and the interviews conducted by the stakeholders, like the growers, traders, nomads, and those with whom the nomads interact during their stay in District Khairpur. District Khairpur is situated in Sindh Province of Pakistan is one of the most opulent District, it is embedded with the surface as well as mineral resources. But, its fame is due to date’s fruit which is the major factor of the nomadic flow into this district. Also, the date’s season has proved to be poverty alleviation than any other factor. The research results show that every year nearly 3 million to 3.5 million people come to this district and each year almost 2 Billion Pak Rupees are being taken away to different regions as to be the remittances. Besides, the nomadic flow not only proves to be beneficial for the dates fruit growers but also for the merchants and the vendors who also earn almost double in the season of date’s fruit. Especially the hotels and vegetable shops become almost short of the consumers' goods in the season. Finally, some measures are proposed and a brief conclusion is given herewith. This paper also has analyzed the determinants and the consequences of nomadic migration into District Khairpur.