The problematic relationship between feminism and Marxism or socialism has been one of the hardiest perennials among the many flowers the women's movement has brought to bloom in recent years. Some of the theoretical and programmatic texts on the subject published in the 1970s and early 1980s have become classics of contemporary feminism; these have since been joined by studies informed by a decade of practical political struggle on the terrain they mapped, such as Anne Phillips's recent Divided Loyalties: Dilemmas of Sex and Class. The simultaneous reinvention of a history of feminism in the 1970s quickly discovered the first encounters between these ideologies of social emancipation, which together dominated progressive politics in Europe in the century before 1914. No doubt because feminist historians were curious above all about the ideas of their nineteenth-century forerunners (though probably also because of the relative accessibility of sources), ideological and organizational studies were the first to appear; German feminism and socialism yielded a particularly rich and early harvest of research. Since then, expansion in the numbers and horizons of interested historians has added a growing literature on a different but related subject: the history of women in industrial wage work. Indeed, this has been established as an indispensable part of the social and political history of labor in the nineteenth century, and is ignored by labor history in the old, male sense at its own peril. It poses new and complex questions about the relationship between experience and ideology, between gender and class as meaningful categories of representation and analysis, and between the organized movements that these concepts generated. These issues are addressed in the two excellent studies of working women in Russia and France under review here. They share many characteristics other than their common time frame and subject matter. As well as depicting in some detail women's participation in factory labor, both authors aim to link this to women's participation in the industrial and socialist culture of their period and place,