Night-time City Research Articles

Pillars of City Spatial Sensitivity and Their Integration into Sightseeing Routes

Worldwide, many cities have appropriate and necessary conditions for the development of urban tourism. Some locations, although considered important for local tourist destinations as part of a standard repertoire, do not comply with modern standards. For tourism organisations, it is very important to plan the best possible sightseeing routes with the best sightseeing locations. Using the intuitive approach only, is not enough in the modern tourism industry. The focus of the presented research is an innovative approach to identify the most prosperous urban places that should be included in urban tourist offers. Empirical research was conducted, based on the analytical method of mental mapping. For the research location, Maribor city (Slovenia, eu) has been chosen. A sample of 200 respondents was taken. They were asked to draw a city map twice, once for the daytime city and once for the nighttime city. Graphical results obtained reflect a subjective mental spatial idea of individual thinking mode. Some locations in the city seem to be particularly important and visible. They were named ‘Pillars of Spatial Sensitivity’ or, pss locations. pss locations are extremely suitable to be integrated in a tourist offer as building blocks of sightseeing routes. When processing the research results, 34 pss locations were more or less frequently detected in Maribor city. 32 of them had different appearance frequency between day and night. Based on these results, it is possible to conclude that modified spatial circumstances affect the perception and utilisation of urban space. The research results make it obvious that spatial sensitivity of tourists depends on time. It is possible to design sightseeing routes adapted to the time component. Keywords: urban tourism, pillars of spatial sensitivity, mental map, sightseeing location

Use of Virtual Reality Simulation to Identify Vision-Related Disability in Patients With Glaucoma

Clinical assessment of vision-related disability is hampered by the lack of instruments to assess visual performance in real-world situations. Interactive virtual reality (VR) environments displayed in a binocular stereoscopic VR headset have been designed, presumably simulating day-to-day activities to evaluate vision-related disability. To investigate the application of VR to identify vision-related disability in patients with glaucoma. In a cross-sectional study, 98 patients with glaucoma and 50 healthy individuals were consecutively recruited from a university eye clinic; all participants were Chinese. The study was conducted between August 30, 2016, and July 31, 2017; data analysis was performed from December 1, 2017, to October 30, 2018. Measurements of visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, visual field (VF), National Eye Institute 25-item Visual Function Questionnaire Rasch score, and VR disability scores determined from 5 VR simulations: supermarket shopping, stair and city navigations in daytime, and stair and city navigations in nighttime. Duration required to complete the simulation, number of items incorrectly identified, and number of collisions were measured to compute task-specific and overall VR disability scores. Vision-related disability was identified when the VR disability score was outside the normal age-adjusted 95% confidence region. Virtual reality disability score. In the 98 patients with glaucoma, mean (SD) age was 49.8 (11.6) years and 60 were men (61.2%); in the 50 healthy individuals, mean (SD) age was 48.3 (14.8) years and 16 were men (32.0%). The patients with glaucoma had different degrees of VF loss (122 eyes [62.2%] had moderate or advanced VF defects). The time required to complete the activities by patients with glaucoma vs healthy individuals was longer by 15.2 seconds (95% CI, 5.5-24.9 seconds) or 34.1% (95% CI, 12.4%-55.7%) for the shopping simulation, 72.8 seconds (95% CI, 23.0-122.6 seconds) or 33.8% (95% CI, 10.7%-56.9%) for the nighttime stair navigation, and 38.1 seconds (95% CI, 10.9-65.2 seconds) or 30.8% (95% CI, 8.8%-52.8%) for the nighttime city navigation. The mean (SD) duration was not significantly different between the glaucoma and healthy groups in daytime stair (203.7 [93.7] vs 192.9 [89.1] seconds, P = .52) and city (118.7 [41.5] vs 117.0 [52.3] seconds, P = .85) navigation. For each decibel decrease in binocular VF sensitivity, the risk of collision increased by 15% in nighttime stair (hazard ratio [HR], 1.15; 95% CI, 1.08-1.22) and city (HR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.08-1.23) navigations. Fifty-eight patients (59.1%) with glaucoma had vision-related disability in at least 1 simulated daily task; a higher proportion of patients had vision-related disability in nighttime city (27 of 88 [30.7%]) and stair (27 of 90 [30.0%]) navigation than in daytime city (7 of 88 [8.0%]) and stair (19 of 96 [19.8%]) navigation. The overall VR disability score was associated with the National Eye Institute 25-item Visual Function Questionnaire Rasch score (R2 = 0.207). These findings suggest that vision-related disability is associated with lighting condition and task in patients with glaucoma. Virtual reality may allow eye care professionals to understand the patients' perspectives on how visual impairment imparts disability in daily living and provide a new paradigm to augment the assessment of vision-related disability.

Governing the night-time city: The rise of night mayors as a new form of urban governance after dark

The urban night has traditionally been a regimented space characterised by strict policing and surveillance. Early research on the night-time economy documented the expansion of nightlife from a centrepiece of culture-led redevelopment strategies in post-industrial cities, to the introduction of a broad governance apparatus to manage the agglomeration of night-time activity. Over the past two decades, a new actor has emerged: more than 40 cities have appointed night mayors or individuals responsible for maintaining nocturnal vibrancy, while mediating between those who wish to work, party or sleep. This article summarises the results of a qualitative study that gathered information on the origins, propagation and geographic variations in the role to provide a first comprehensive look at this position. Data from 35 night mayors and night-time advocacy organisations from around the world revealed that, though cities differ greatly in their approach towards night-time infrastructure and regulation, there seems to be growing consensus on the need for permanent nocturnal governance structures. By encouraging greater dialogue and experimentation, these structures are challenging traditional approaches to urban governance and paving the way for a new wave of studies on the urban night.

Elaine T. James. Landscapes of the Song of Songs: Poetry and Place. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. 233 pp.

Reviewed by: Landscapes of the Song of Songs: Poetry and Place by Elaine T. James Kelli A. Gardner Elaine T. James. Landscapes of the Song of Songs: Poetry and Place. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. 233 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009419000084 The Song of Songs has never lacked for conversation partners. As metaphorically lush poetry, it has been fertile ground for allegorical readings as well as for comparative work with love poetry broadly, ancient and modern. Its uniquely prominent female figure has attracted feminist critics, both those who wish to uphold it as the salvific text for an otherwise androcentric canon and those who accuse it of many of the same gender troubles that plague the rest of the Bible. In short, it is rare to come across a new perspective on the Song of Songs. And yet, Elaine James's monograph, Landscapes of the Song of Songs, is just that. Through a thoughtful blend of critical theory and careful readings, James provides refreshing new insight into the Song of Songs, focused on the treatment and representation of landscape. [End Page 193] Despite the poem's detailed attention to the lovers' world, from lush garden to nighttime city streets, James establishes that in the interpretive history of the Song of Songs scholarly attention is too often diverted elsewhere (3–6). Whether readers are focused on discovering the allegorical or erotic meaning behind an image, landscapes seem to serve only as "vehicles" for these readings and are rarely "the object of interest" (6). James's work aims to fill this lacuna through a landscape approach to the Song. This approach, carefully constructed in conversation with theory on landscape (in various media and forms), space and place, agrarianism, urbanism, gender and the gaze, and poetry, begins from the understanding that "landscape fundamentally forms human experience" (2). This formation, however, works both ways: while people have an impact on their landscape, landscape shapes its inhabitants' culture, values, and imagination. As a result, a text's conceptualization of landscape is an important cultural artifact and should not be ignored as mere backdrop. James insists, therefore, that the Song's "landscapes are ethically charged poetic creations that draw the reader into its meditation on the human place in the natural world" (2). Equipped with this landscape approach introduced in the first chapter (but further developed and honed throughout the book) James divides her work on the Song according to its different landscapes. She focuses on the agrarian landscape of Song 1:5–8 and 7:11–14 (MT; 10–13 Eng) in chapter 2; the garden of Song 4:12–5:1 in chapter 3; the cityscape of Song 3:1–5 and 5:2–8, as well as the citification of the woman's body in Song 4:4, 6:4, 7:4, and 8:8–10 in chapter 4; and lastly the descriptive poems of the young woman, which James identifies as maps, in Song 4:1–7, 6:4–7, and 7:1–7 in chapter 5. Each chapter offers close and careful readings of the landscapes as described by the Song. She bolsters her analysis not only by engagement with modern critical theory, but also by drawing on archaeological data and comparison with the art and poetry of the ancient Near East. The real strength of this work lies in this detailed textual analysis. As a result of careful attention to lyric features (e.g., repetition, soundplay, structure, etc.), imagery, and perspective in the Song, James's readings are as insightful and poetic as the texts under examination. James demonstrates throughout the book that a landscape approach brings to the Song a fresh perspective that is still grounded in historical critical methods. For example, James pushes back against the notion that the Song represents a sharp dichotomy between nature and culture (an assumption for many and an assertion by some who have worked on the Song) by demonstrating how a garden is "a cultural form that serves as a microcosm for ideals about the natural world" (59). In other words, the garden is an art form that relies on both nature and culture for its existence. This is apparent in...

Landscapes of the Song of Songs: Poetry and Place by Elaine T. James

Reviewed by: Landscapes of the Song of Songs: Poetry and Place by Elaine T. James Kelli A. Gardner Elaine T. James. Landscapes of the Song of Songs: Poetry and Place. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017. 233 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009419000084 The Song of Songs has never lacked for conversation partners. As metaphorically lush poetry, it has been fertile ground for allegorical readings as well as for comparative work with love poetry broadly, ancient and modern. Its uniquely prominent female figure has attracted feminist critics, both those who wish to uphold it as the salvific text for an otherwise androcentric canon and those who accuse it of many of the same gender troubles that plague the rest of the Bible. In short, it is rare to come across a new perspective on the Song of Songs. And yet, Elaine James's monograph, Landscapes of the Song of Songs, is just that. Through a thoughtful blend of critical theory and careful readings, James provides refreshing new insight into the Song of Songs, focused on the treatment and representation of landscape. [End Page 193] Despite the poem's detailed attention to the lovers' world, from lush garden to nighttime city streets, James establishes that in the interpretive history of the Song of Songs scholarly attention is too often diverted elsewhere (3–6). Whether readers are focused on discovering the allegorical or erotic meaning behind an image, landscapes seem to serve only as "vehicles" for these readings and are rarely "the object of interest" (6). James's work aims to fill this lacuna through a landscape approach to the Song. This approach, carefully constructed in conversation with theory on landscape (in various media and forms), space and place, agrarianism, urbanism, gender and the gaze, and poetry, begins from the understanding that "landscape fundamentally forms human experience" (2). This formation, however, works both ways: while people have an impact on their landscape, landscape shapes its inhabitants' culture, values, and imagination. As a result, a text's conceptualization of landscape is an important cultural artifact and should not be ignored as mere backdrop. James insists, therefore, that the Song's "landscapes are ethically charged poetic creations that draw the reader into its meditation on the human place in the natural world" (2). Equipped with this landscape approach introduced in the first chapter (but further developed and honed throughout the book) James divides her work on the Song according to its different landscapes. She focuses on the agrarian landscape of Song 1:5–8 and 7:11–14 (MT; 10–13 Eng) in chapter 2; the garden of Song 4:12–5:1 in chapter 3; the cityscape of Song 3:1–5 and 5:2–8, as well as the citification of the woman's body in Song 4:4, 6:4, 7:4, and 8:8–10 in chapter 4; and lastly the descriptive poems of the young woman, which James identifies as maps, in Song 4:1–7, 6:4–7, and 7:1–7 in chapter 5. Each chapter offers close and careful readings of the landscapes as described by the Song. She bolsters her analysis not only by engagement with modern critical theory, but also by drawing on archaeological data and comparison with the art and poetry of the ancient Near East. The real strength of this work lies in this detailed textual analysis. As a result of careful attention to lyric features (e.g., repetition, soundplay, structure, etc.), imagery, and perspective in the Song, James's readings are as insightful and poetic as the texts under examination. James demonstrates throughout the book that a landscape approach brings to the Song a fresh perspective that is still grounded in historical critical methods. For example, James pushes back against the notion that the Song represents a sharp dichotomy between nature and culture (an assumption for many and an assertion by some who have worked on the Song) by demonstrating how a garden is "a cultural form that serves as a microcosm for ideals about the natural world" (59). In other words, the garden is an art form that relies on both nature and culture for its existence. This is apparent in...

The night-time city. Four modes of exclusion: Reflections on the Urban Studies special collection

This article presents commentary and analysis on the Urban Studies special collection on the night-time city. The collection highlights burgeoning interest in the urban night from across the social sciences and helps consolidate what might be referred to as the ‘third wave’ of research on the evening and night-time economy (ENTE). The collection addresses the challenges of 21st century place-making after dark in a variety of international contexts. This commentary interprets individual contributions to this collection in the light of the author’s research experience within an evolving and increasingly sophisticated field of knowledge. The articles have, I suggest, power relations, social exclusion and social sustainability as their most prominent meta-themes. I propose a new conceptual model for the interpretation of situated assemblages of power, capacity and influence, as operating across four overlapping modes of urban governance.

Beyond night-time economy: Affective atmospheres of the urban night

This paper develops the use of the concept of atmosphere in an ‘assemblage urbanism’ approach, as a way of reevaluating how we understand the night-time city. In doing so, this paper rejects what it sees as an overuse of the term ‘night-time economy’ as a synonym for ‘urban night’. Instead, it seeks to describe the night-time city center as an affective atmosphere, emerging from the arranging of practices, bodies and materials. In this vision, an affective atmosphere is best understood as a form of ‘placed assemblage’. My studies of taxi drivers and street cleaners in a British city are used to illustrate and explore how this occurs, drawing from an analytic framework developed out of the work of Deleuze and Guattari. As such, this paper offers a broader vision of the urban night, which sees the perspective taken by ‘night-time economy studies’ as reflecting just a portion of the practices which generate the affective atmosphere of the night-time city center.

Taking back the night? Gender and the contestation of sexual entertainment in England and Wales

Despite important moves towards gender equality, the experience of the night-time city remains profoundly different for women and men. The visibility of self-styled ‘gentleman’s clubs’ where female dancers perform for a predominantly male clientele has been taken as prime evidence of this persistent inequity. Opposition to such clubs has hence been vocal, with the result that many local authorities in England and Wales have moved to ban clubs within their jurisdiction utilising the powers of the Policing and Crime Act, 2009. This paper explores the arguments that have persuaded policy-makers to refuse licences for such venues, particularly the idea that sexual entertainment causes specific harms to women. The paper does not question the veracity of such arguments, but instead explores why sexual entertainment venues have become a target of feminist campaigning, situating this opposition in the context of long-standing debates about the vulnerability of women in the night-time city.

Book review: Planning the Night-time City

Book review: Planning the Night-time City

Reviews: Rethinking Maps: New Frontiers in Cartographic Theory, Terrorism, Risk, and the Global City: Toward Urban Resilience, Mortgage Markets Worldwide, Planning the Night-Time City, Designs on the Public: The Private Lives of New York's Public Spaces

Reviews: Rethinking Maps: New Frontiers in Cartographic Theory, Terrorism, Risk, and the Global City: Toward Urban Resilience, Mortgage Markets Worldwide, Planning the Night-Time City, Designs on the Public: The Private Lives of New York's Public Spaces

Are some melanomas caused by artificial light?

The incidence rate of cutaneous melanoma has been increasing faster than that of any other cancer in white-skinned populations over the past decades. The main risk factors for melanoma (i.e. exposure to sunlight, naevus count, phototype, and family history of melanoma) may not wholly explain the epidemiological trends observed for this cancer. The light-at-night theory postulates that increasing use of artificial light-at-night may contribute to the increasing breast cancer incidence through suppressed secretion of melatonin (a hormone produced in the dark and inhibited by light, which regulates circadian rhythms). Here, we postulate that this theory may also apply to melanoma and that it may explain a part of this cancer burden. Consistent with our hypothesis is evidence from experimental studies suggesting a lightening effect of melatonin on frog skin and mammal hair during seasonal changes, its antioxidant and anti-carcinogenic effects in skin melanocytes, as well as the expression of melatonin receptors in melanocytes. Also, epidemiological data suggest lower melatonin concentrations in melanoma patients compared with controls; a potential therapeutic effect of melatonin in patients with metastatic disease; a higher prevalence of melanoma in pilots and aircrews, with increased risks with higher time zones travelled; and increased melanoma risks in office workers exposed to fluorescent lighting. Moreover, melanoma incidence and seasonal patterns are consistent with a reduction of melatonin secretion with intensity of exposure to light, although it remains difficult to distinguish the effect of melatonin disruption from that of sun exposure on the basis of ecological studies. Finally, the reported associations between hormonal factors and melanoma are consistent with melatonin inhibition increasing the risk of melanoma by increasing circulating oestrogen levels. Despite the existing suggestive evidence, the light-at-night hypothesis has never been directly tested for melanoma. Very few studies examined the potential associations between melanoma risk and shift work or melatonin concentrations, and we found no studies reporting on the relationship between melanoma and number of sleeping hours, use of melatonin supplements, blindness, night-time city light levels, bedroom light levels, or clock genes polymorphisms. Therefore, since several observations support our hypothesis and very little research has been undertaken on this subject, we strongly encourage analytic epidemiological studies to test the light-at-night theory for melanoma causation.

Planning, urban design and the night-time city

The planning system was constrained by a neo-liberalist insistence on land-use planning in the 1980s and early 1990s, thereby providing the institutional framework for deregulation of the numbers, capacities and types of licensed premises in town and city centres. This had a direct impact on levels of crime, violence and anti-social behaviour. Criminologists have criticized planners for their complicity in this process. The article argues that entertainment uses have been marginal to the social and ecological preoccupations of the planning profession. It suggests that the reintroduction of spatial planning by the New Labour government has allowed planners to reassert social and environmental objectives into their development plans and potentially to introduce a greater degree of regulatory control. The article examines the changes to the planning system and its complex relation to licensing. Finally, it questions whether this new opportunity for planners to intervene will be realized in the current economic downturn.

ACAR: Adaptive Connectivity Aware Routing for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks in City Scenarios

Multi-hop vehicle-to-vehicle communication is useful for supporting many vehicular applications that provide drivers with safety and convenience. Developing multi-hop communication in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANET) is a challenging problem due to the rapidly changing topology and frequent network disconnections, which cause failure or inefficiency in traditional ad hoc routing protocols. We propose an adaptive connectivity aware routing (ACAR) protocol that addresses these problems by adaptively selecting an optimal route with the best network transmission quality based on statistical and real-time density data that are gathered through an on-the-fly density collection process. The protocol consists of two parts: 1) select an optimal route, consisting of road segments, with the best estimated transmission quality, and 2) in each road segment of the chosen route, select the most efficient multi-hop path that will improve the delivery ratio and throughput. The optimal route is selected using our transmission quality model that takes into account vehicle densities and traffic light periods to estimate the probability of network connectivity and data delivery ratio for transmitting packets. Our simulation results show that the proposed ACAR protocol outperforms existing VANET routing protocols in terms of data delivery ratio, throughput and data packet delay. Since the proposed model is not constrained by network densities, the ACAR protocol is suitable for both daytime and nighttime city VANET scenarios.

From Threat To Promise: Nightclub 'Security', Governance and Consumer Elites

Drawn from an ethnographic investigation of Central London's contemporary nightclub scene, this paper seeks to map previously obscure elements of the private governance of ‘security' and the wider network of ‘nodes' which govern Britain's night-time economy (NTE). Attention to the constitution and operation of nodes and the interfaces between them provide insight into the co-production of particular forms of social order and situated meanings of the term ‘security'. The paper identifies a criminogenic NTE in flux, driven by entrepreneurial zeal, a stratified consumer culture and forms of regulatory closure that conspire to exacerbate underlying tendencies toward social exclusion in the night-time city.

The new wealth of cities: city dynamics and the fifth wave

Contents: Preface: an explanation Theory: Two Inter-locking Theories of City Development: Introduction A general model of city dynamics The long waves of city development City dynamics Old money and new work. Economy: The New Economy and the Creative Industries: The economy of cities Knowledge economies and post-Fordism The cultural or creative industries The rise of London's creative industries Local economic development of the creative industries. Culture: Art and the City: Artistic creativity Artistic movements Cities and artistic creativity The arts and urban regeneration Artistic creativity and the long waves. Time: The Regulation of Public Morality: On Time: Public social life and the evening economy Night-time cities The problem of regulation Public morality and the long waves New regulation of the night-time city?. Place: The Art of Place-Making and Urban Design: Place matters Losing the place City building Urban design Place in the fifth wave. Creative Milieux: Quarters and Clusters: Creative milieux Cultural quarters Planned cultural quarters A typology for developing cultural and creative industry quarters Creative milieu in the fifth wave. Cities of the Fifth Wave: Summary argument Fifth wave cities City dynamics and place-making Renaissance or enlightenment? Index.

Disaggregating the Space–Time Layers of City-Centre Activities and Their Users

Adopting a focus on both time and space, the authors aim to unpack the complexity of uses and users in the city centre. Evidence from Swansea reveals a stark twofold temporal division between a frequently visited daytime city and a much less frequently visited evening and nighttime city. Furthermore, lower intensity evening activities such as theatres and cinemas are distinguished from the higher intensity nighttime activities of pubs and clubs, with restaurants and cafés occupying an intermediate position. The evening clientele visit less frequently and are disproportionately drawn from the older and higher status social groups, whereas later at night, pubs and clubs are visited more frequently, and by imbalances of the young, lower status groups, and students. The city centre is seen as an area of spatial, temporal, and social segregation, with implications for policies that aim towards a more inclusive and safer 24-hour city. The conclusions emphasise the importance of time in urban geographical research and in policies for city-centre revitalisation.

Victimization and Fear Among Lesbians and Gay Men in Stockholm

Victimization among lesbians and gay men creates, apart from harm and fear amongst the victimized, great fear among non-victimized gays and lesbians. This article is based on a comparison between victimized and non-victimized gays and lesbians in four populations in Stockholm. The study shows that differences in lifestyle, primarily concerning openness about sexual identity and frequency of participating in· night-time city life result in different rates of victimization. Furthermore, there are great differences in fear of crime between the victimized and non-victimized. Somewhat surprisingly there are no differences in fear of crime among male and female victims. Among the non-victims, male respondents report more fear than females.

City-centre Revitalisation: Problems of Fragmentation and Fear in the Evening and Night-time City

Over the past 30 years the pre-eminent commercial status of the city centre in the retail system of British cities has been challenged by the competitive impact of retail decentralisation. A contemporaneous decentralisation of office and leisure activities has exacerbated the situation. At the same time, early redevelopment strategies have created significant degrees of spatial fragmentation between functions and the loss of a substantial residential population. In the contemporary social climate, these changes have resulted in negative implications for the perception of safety and the generation of fear and anxiety amongst all users of the city centre. Consequently, safety issues have accentuated the emerging problems of the city centres, particularly for evening and night-time activities. City-centre revitalisation strategies have increasingly aimed to extend 'vitality and viability' beyond the temporal divide associated with the '5pm flight'. This has involved the incorporation of the '24-hour city' concept. However, this strategy has proved problematic due to the negative perceptions of safety, which are associated with the emergence of an 'exclusionary' youth culture in many major cities in recent years. This paper seeks to examine the nature and scale of the obstacles to the revitalisation of the evening and night-time economy and culture of Swansea and Cardiff in order the better to inform strategies which aim to instigate the 24-hour city concept. The study reveals substantial obstacles to the realisation of a vibrant 24-hour city, the scale of which suggests the need for considerable and concerted planning and development efforts if they are to be overcome. Many opportunities exist but the impediments suggest that progress in the direction of a 'liveable' 24-hour city is likely, at best, to be slow and incremental in the British situation.

Exploring safety concerns in the night-time city: revitalising the evening economy

The spatial interrelationships between safety concerns, recorded crime and the functioning of the evening economy are explored within the city centres of Swansea and Cardiff. Anxiety at night is focused on places exhibiting fear generating design and poor environmental quality, on the bus stations and multi-storey car parks, and on the 'drinking' streets where night clubs and pubs are concentrated. Anxiety partly reflects the pattern of recorded crime. The highly localised distributions of crime and fear lend support to policies of functional segregation within the city centre in revitalising the evening economy, whereby activities for an older clientele are spatially separated from the youth-oriented pubs and night clubs.

長野市における夜間気温分布と天空率,風の関係

長野市(人口35万)における夜間気温分布を1996年に調査した.観測は自動車の移動観測により市街地内外における47地点で27回行った.また,観測地点において天空率∅を魚眼レンズ写真から求めた.この観測により,天気が快晴で風速が最も弱かった11月3日において,天空率が大きくなると,都市気温は小さくなる傾向が認められた.しかし,風速1.5m/s以下の14ケースにおいて,都市気温と天空率との相関係数は最大0.4程度であり,また両者の関係において雲量の影響は認められなかった.さらに,都市内の気温分布が風の影響を受けることは高温域が拡大することで認められたが,最高気温記録地点が風下側に移動することは確認できなかった.