Nickel Manganese Cobalt Research Articles

Review of Economic, Technical and Environmental Aspects of Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) have seen significant advancements and mainstream adoption, prompting in-depth analysis of their economic, technical, and environmental impacts. Economically, while EVs offer lower operational costs than internal combustion engine vehicles, challenges remain, particularly for urban users reliant on public charging stations and the potential implementation of new road taxes to offset declining fuel tax revenues. Technically, electric motors in EVs have fewer moving parts, but battery management and cybersecurity complexities pose new risks. Transitioning from Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) to Lithium-Iron-Phosphate (LFP) batteries reflects efforts to enhance thermal stability and mitigate fire hazards. Environmentally, lithium extraction for batteries has profound ecological impacts, including for water consumption and pollution. Battery production and the carbon footprint of the entire lifecycle remain pressing concerns, with battery recycling and second-life applications as crucial mitigation strategies. Smart integration of EVs with the energy infrastructure introduces challenges like grid stability and opportunities, such as smart, intelligent, innovative charging solutions and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology. Future research should develop economic models to forecast long-term impacts, advance battery technology, enhance cybersecurity, and conduct comprehensive environmental assessments to optimise the benefits of electromobility, addressing the multidimensional challenges and opportunities presented by EVs.

Mechanisms of Thermal Decomposition in Spent NCM Lithium-Ion Battery Cathode Materials with Carbon Defects and Oxygen Vacancies.

Resource recovery from retired electric vehicle lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is a key to sustainable supply of technology-critical metals. However, the mainstream pyrometallurgical recycling approach requires high temperature and high energy consumption. Our study proposes a novel mechanochemical processing combined with hydrogen (H2) reduction strategy to accelerate the breakdown of ternary nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) cathode materials at a significantly lower temperature (450 °C). Particle refinement, material amorphization, and internal energy storage are considered critical success factors for the accelerated decomposition of NCM cathode materials. In our proposed approach, NCM cathode materials can develop active sites with carbon defects (Cv) and oxygen vacancies (Ov), which improve the reduction and breakdown of H2. The adsorbed H2 on the surface of NCM decomposes into H* and combines with oxygen to form OH species, which can be facilitated by Ov via the enhanced charge transfer. The introduced Cv can enhance H2 cracking and generate *C-H species to promote the thermal decomposition of NCM. The presence of defects proves to foster the preferential reduction of Mn(IV) by H2, leading to a lower activation energy for the NCM decomposition (from 139 to 110 kJ/mol) with less H2 consumption. Life cycle assessment suggests a reduction of 4.42 kg CO2 eq for the recycling of every 1.0 kg of retired batteries. This study can promote material circularity and minimize the environmental burden of mining technology-critical metals for a low-carbon transition.

Thermal hazard comparison and assessment of Li-ion battery and Na-ion battery

Na-ion batteries are considered a promising next-generation battery alternative to Li-ion batteries, due to the abundant Na resources and low cost. Most efforts focus on developing new materials to enhance energy density and electrochemical performance to enable it comparable to Li-ion batteries, without considering thermal hazard of Na-ion batteries and comparison with Li-ion batteries. To address this issue, our work comprehensively compares commercial prismatic lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery, lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM523) battery and Na-ion battery of the same size from thermal hazard perspective using Accelerating Rate Calorimeter. The thermal hazard of the three cells is then qualitatively assessed from thermal stability, early warning and thermal runaway severity perspectives by integrating eight characteristic parameters. The Na-ion cell displays comparable thermal stability with LFP while LFP exhibits the lowest thermal runaway hazard and severity. However, the Na-ion cell displays the lowest safety venting temperature and the longest time interval between safety venting and thermal runaway, allowing the generated gas to be released as early as possible and detected in a timely manner, providing sufficient time for early warning. Finally, a database of thermal runaway characteristic temperature for Li-ion and Na-ion cells is collected and processed to delineate four thermal hazard levels for quantitative assessment. Overall, LFP cells exhibit the lowest thermal hazard, followed by the Na-ion cells and NCM523 cells. This work clarifies the thermal hazard discrepancy between the Na-ion cell and prevalent Li-ion cells, providing crucial guidance for development and application of Na-ion cell.

Predictive pretrained transformer (PPT) for real-time battery health diagnostics

Modeling and forecasting the evolution of battery systems involve complex interactions across physical, chemical, and electrochemical processes, influenced by diverse usage demands and dynamic operational patterns. In this study, we developed a predictive pre-trained Transformer (PPT) model equipped with 1,871,114 parameters that enhance identification of both short-term and long-term patterns in time-series data. This is achieved through the integration of convolutional layers and probabilistic sparse self-attention mechanisms, which collectively enhance prediction accuracy and efficiency in diagnosing battery health. Moreover, the customized hybrid-model fusion supports parallel computing and employs transfer learning, reducing computational costs while enhancing scalability and adaptability. Consequently, this allows for precise real-time health estimations across various battery cycles. We validated this method using a public dataset of 203 commercial lithium iron phosphate (LFP)/graphite batteries charged at rates ranging from 1C to 8C. By using only partial charge data—from an 80 % state of charge to the maximum charging voltage (3.6 V for LFP batteries, 4.2 V for ternary batteries)—and avoiding complex feature engineering, error metrics were achieved below 0.3 % for root mean square error (RMSE), weighted mean absolute percentage error (WMAPE), and mean absolute error (MAE), with an R2 of 98.9 %. The generalization capabilities were further demonstrated across 36 different testing protocols, encompassing 23,480 cycles throughout the entire life cycle, with a total inference time of 9.88 s during the testing phases. Further experiments on 30 nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA) batteries and 36 nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) batteries, across different battery types and operational scenarios, resulted in RMSE, WMAPE, and MAE all below 0.9 %, with R2 values of 94.1 % and 94.4 %, respectively. These findings highlight the potential of our customized deep transfer neural networks to enhance diagnostic accuracy, accelerate training, and improve generalization in real-time applications.

A Universal Plug-and-Play Approach to In Situ Multinuclear Magnetic Resonance Analysis of Electrochemical Phenomena in Commercial Battery Cells.

Advancing electrochemical energy storage devices relies on versatile analytical tools capable of revealing the molecular mechanisms behind the function and degradation of battery materials in situ. The nuclear magnetic resonance phenomenon plays a pivotal role in fundamental studies of energy materials and devices because of its exceptional sensitivity to local environments and the dynamics of many electrochemically relevant elements. The jelly roll architecture is one of the most energy-dense and, therefore, most popular concepts implemented in pouch, prismatic, and cylindrical Li- and Na-ion cells. Such widely commercialized designs, however, represent a significant obstacle for a range of powerful in situ magnetic resonance-based methodologies due to negligible radio frequency electromagnetic field penetration through conductive metal casings and current collectors. In this work, we introduce an experimental setup that enables direct RF wave transmission through the cell terminals and current collectors, and provides efficient excitation and detection of NMR signals. An RF adapter designed as a plug-and-play device effectively turns the battery cell into an NMR probe that can be tuned to a broad range of Larmor frequencies. Due to its exceptional sensitivity, versatility, and multinuclear capability, the proposed methodology is suitable for fundamental research and industrial high-throughput screening applications. In situ NMR lineshapes provide a direct quantitative description of the chemical environments of electrochemically active elements and enable new metrics for the accurate assessment of state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH). Specifically, in commercial pouch cells based on lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide, and sodium nickel iron manganese oxide chemistries, 7Li and 23Na NMR data unambiguously show electrochemical transformations between intercalated and metallic forms of charge carrier ions, and reveal anisotropic magnetic properties of the electrode coating.

Magnetic Supraparticles as Identifiers in Single-Layer Lithium-Ion Battery Pouch Cells.

The development of effective recycling technologies is essential for the recovery and reuse of the raw materials required for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Future recycling processes depend on accessible information, necessitating the implementation of a digital battery passport. The European battery regulation mandates the use of a machine-readable identifier physically attached to the batteries for accessing digital information. Since externally applied optical labels are vulnerable to mechanical damage, technologies for identification without these restrictions could be beneficial. This study demonstrates that magnetic supraparticles (SPs) can be used for contactless identification of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) battery pouch cells via magnetic particle spectroscopy (MPS) and that multiple pouch cells can be discriminated based on their specific magnetic code. A comparison of three independent model scenarios revealed that the detection of SPs and the impact on cell performance are dependent on the integration location. The results validate the concept of magnetic identification in metallic environments with MPS as an alternative to optical labeling methods. This study provides a foundation for the development of a new selective labeling and identification technology for batteries, with the potential to facilitate recycling and contribute to a more sustainable future.

Insights into the Deterioration Mechanism of Charging Ability during Calendar Aging and Cycling Aging of High-Voltage Co-Poor NCM Cathode-Graphite Full Battery.

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) has gained significant recognition for the power cell market owing to its impressive energy density and appealing cost benefit. Among various cathodes, a high-voltage cobalt-poor lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide cathode (Co-poor NCM cathode) has been considered as a promising strategy to enhance its energy density. Despite these advantages, high-voltage Co-poor NCM cathode-graphite full battery usually suffers from poor rate performance. However, fast charging has been a key indicator for widespread application of power batteries. Although many efforts have been made to improve the charging performance of fresh batteries, few works investigate the charging ability during calendar aging and cycling aging of high-voltage Co-poor NCM cathode-graphite full battery. In this work, we found that the charging ability becomes worse during calendar aging and cycling aging. Results showed that the increasing charge transfer resistance from the cathode is the major obstacle to achieving fast charging during the aging process. To address the problem, high-voltage Al2O3-coated Co-poor NCM cathode successfully prepared via a simple atomic layer deposition (ALD) method has been developed to reduce the decay of charging performance during calendar aging and cycling aging. Al2O3-coated NCM cathode can effectively reduce the growth rate of the resistance of cathode, which is benefiting from the conversion of Al2O3 into LiAlO2 with high ionic conductivity and the restriction formation of rock salt phase. Benefiting from the decreased charge transfer resistance of the NCM cathode, the mismatch of the lithium-ion reaction kinetics is well alleviated, thus effectively reducing the polarization under fast charging. As a result, Al2O3-coated NCM cathode-graphite full battery shows the slow deterioration of charging performance during the aging process. This work provides a promising strategy for constructing fast-charging batteries during calendar aging and cycling aging.

Prediction of metal recovery potential of end-of-life NEV batteries in China based on GRA-BiLSTM

As Chinese new energy vehicle (NEV) sales continue to grow, end-of-life batteries have great potential for recycling in the future. In this study, a combined model based on Gray Relation Analysis and Bi-directional Long Short-Term Memory (GRA-BiLSTM) is proposed for predicting NEV sales, and the NEV battery life is modeled using the Weibull distribution. Then, the amount of end-of-life batteries, secondary utilization and metal recycling are calculated. The impact of end-of-life battery recycling on the supply and demand of key metals is studied. The results show that in 2040, the secondary utilization of end-of-life batteries in the Standard Growth Rate-Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Dominated-High Secondary Utilization rate scenario (SGR-LFPH) is 391.76 GWh. The recycling volumes of lithium, nickel and cobalt are 45,900 tons, 92,900 tons and 22,100 tons, respectively. In the Standard Growth Rate-lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide Battery Dominated-Low Secondary Utilization rate scenario (SGR-NCML), the recycling of lithium, nickel and cobalt is even greater, at 62,600 tons, 372,200 tons and 71,700 tons, respectively. End-of-life batteries recycling can reduce the demand for metals. However, as NEV sales continue to grow, the gap between metal supply and demand remains significant. The findings urge the Chinese government develop appropriate battery management strategies to increase the recycling rate of end-of-life batteries; and to encourage enterprises to research new types of batteries to resolve the conflict between supply and demand for metals.

Removal of iron and aluminum from hydrometallurgical NMC-LFP recycling process through precipitation

There is a need to develop removal strategies for typical battery impurities–iron and aluminum–from actual hydrometallurgical recycling solutions. In this work, the investigated solution originated from lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) rich black mass, while iron phosphate (LFP) was used as an in situ reductant. It was found that the presence of phosphate ions supported selective iron precipitation already at pH = 2.0 (T = 60 °C, t = 3 h, NaOH), with nearly complete iron removal (97.8 %). The precipitate was rich in iron (21.5 wt%) and phosphorus (13.4 wt%); it also contained 0.7 wt% Ni and 0.3–0.4 wt% Mn, Co, Al, and Li. It is suggested that the presence of phosphate in minor amounts may cause this co-precipitation of battery metals. With the aim of combined precipitation of iron (100 %) and aluminum (91.0 %), the pH was increased up to 4.5. Although 90.8 % of fluoride precipitated, the remaining fluorides may have kept the aluminum partially in soluble form as Al-F complexes. The formed precipitate had lower iron (18.4 wt%) and phosphorus (11.4 wt%) content, whereas the impurity contents and thus the battery metals losses were slightly higher: Ni, Mn, Co, Al, and Cu were each between 1.1–1.9 wt% and Li and F < 1 wt%. In the precipitates investigated, iron was found predominantly as iron phosphate (FePO4), whereas a minor fraction also precipitated as iron fluoride (FeF3). The precipitated aluminum existed mainly as AlOOH. The results presented here will help to build iron and aluminum removal strategies for industrial battery recycling solutions, and also provide insights into the dominant iron and aluminum phases forming the precipitates.

Progress in direct recycling of spent lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes

With the widespread use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in portable electronics and electric vehicles (EVs), the end-of-life (EOL) LIBs are projected to reach 1336 GWh by 2040 under the sustainable development scenario. Proper recycling is urgently needed to minimize the release of hazardous waste and reduce mining activities by reintroducing critical minerals into the supply chain. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNixMnyCozO2, NMCs) cathodes have become dominant in the LIB market, especially with the increasing production of EVs, which are also the most valuable components in EOL LIBs. Unlike pyrometallurgical and/or hydrometallurgical methods, which convert spent NMCs into metals or metal compounds, direct recycling technologies aim to maximize the value of spent cathodes by restoring their degraded structure and composition. This review summarizes direct recycling methods for NMC cathodes published in the last decade and provides insights into the challenges and future development of direct recycling techniques.

Data driven approach for state-of-charge estimation of lithium-ion cell using stochastic variational Gaussian process

Modern electric vehicles rely on lithium-ion batteries. Electric vehicles (EVs) utilize intricate battery packs that require the oversight of a battery management system (BMS) to ensure safe, reliable, and efficient operation. The state estimation of the battery pack is an important responsibility carried out by the BMS. Accurately estimating the State-of-Charge (SOC) poses a considerable engineering challenge since it cannot be directly measured at the battery terminals. This study introduces a novel data-driven methodology for accurately estimating the SOC in Lithium-ion batteries, with a particular focus on its relevance in EV contexts. The framework is built upon the Stochastic Variational Gaussian Process (SVGP)—an improved version of the conventional Gaussian Process (GP). Unlike GP, It can scale up to very large datasets. Furthermore, SVGP uses variational inference to estimate the posterior instead of calculating, making it computationally efficient. The model training process involves using laboratory test data from an 18650 Lithium-ion Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) cell that has gone through eight dynamic drive cycles. The findings showcase a remarkable level of precision in estimation, as indicated by an average R2 value of 0.99 and a Mean Square Error (MSE) as low as 0.02.

Energy transition in the new era: The impact of renewable electric power on the life cycle assessment of automotive power batteries

Amid escalating global concern for environmental issues, the advancement and utilization of renewable energy take on unprecedented importance. This study focuses on the field of electric vehicle power batteries. Through constructing a life cycle assessment model, integrating various types of renewable electrical energy and various battery recovery analysis scenarios, we explored the carbon footprint and environmental impact of Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese (NCM), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), All Solid State Nickel-Cobalt-Manganese (A-NCM), and All Solid State Lithium Iron Phosphate (A-LFP) batteries in the context of China. The research reveals that using renewable electrical energy could reduce carbon emissions by 50%–70 % compared to traditional energy, while also significantly enhancing other environmental performance metrics, notably with hydropower. Solid-state batteries have a more substantial environmental impact during the production phase, approximately 27 % higher than similar lithium batteries, with NCM outpacing LFP. However, in the usage phase, NCM batteries, due to their unique structure, significantly mitigate energy losses compared to LFP batteries. The study also found that hydrometallurgical recycling had superior efficiency and environmental benefits in the recycling stage. Providing a scientific foundation for sustainable policies, this study promotes the enhancement of energy structures and battery recovery in the automotive industry.

LI-ION BATTERY RECYCLING AT PILOT SCALE: DEMONSTRATING THE RESYNTHESIS ROUTE ALSO FOR NMC-LFP MIXED BLACK MASS

The hydrometallurgical recycling of end-of-life Li-ion batteries constitutes a sustainable path for the integral recovery of battery components. However, the heterogeneity of electrode materials constitutes a limitation for process optimization that must provide robust and flexible strategies. In this work, the preliminary results obtained as part of the demonstration activities of the LIFE DRONE project are reported with particular attention to the possibility of integrating the recycling process based on the resynthesis of NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) cathodes with the treatment of mixed black mass also containing LFP (Lithium Ferrous Phosphate) electrodic powders. The experimental results obtained highlight the possibility of leaching NMC black mass in the absence of hydrogen peroxide when NMC-LFP mixtures are used with almost quantitative extraction yields of metals. In particular, working without H2O2 at 60°C for 3 h the following yields of extraction were obtained: 89% for Ni, 69% for Mn, 89% for Co, 91% for Li, 90% for Fe, 100% for P, 56% for Al and 32% for Cu. Furthermore, the experimental data showed that by varying the pH of the leach liquor, it is possible to separate selectively iron phosphate by quantitative precipitation (100% for Fe, 100% for P and 60% for Al) before proceeding with NMC resynthesis.

Investigation of the Effects Caused by Current Interruption Devices of Lithium Cells at High Overvoltages

A faulty voltage measurement can lead to the overcharging of a Li-Ion cell, resulting in gas formation and heating inside the cell, which can trigger thermal runaway. To mitigate this risk, cylindrical cells are equipped with a Current Interrupt Device (CID), which functions as a pressure relief valve, disconnecting the electrical circuit within the cell when internal pressure rises. However, this disconnection causes the cell to suddenly become highly resistant, posing a significant issue in series-connected cells. In such configurations, a portion or even the entire system voltage may drop across the disconnected cell, substantially increasing the likelihood of an electric arc. This arc could ignite any escaping flammable gases, leading to catastrophic failures. In a series of tests conducted on three different cell chemistries—NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt), NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminum), and LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate)—it was found that the safe operation of the CID cannot be guaranteed for system voltages exceeding 120 V. Although comparative tests at double the nominal cell voltage did not exhibit the same behavior, these findings suggest that current safety standards, which recommend testing at double the nominal voltage, may not adequately address the risks involved. The tests further revealed that series connections of cells with CIDs are inherently dangerous, as, in the worst-case scenario, the entire system voltage can be concentrated across a single cell, leading to potential system failure.

Exploration of physical recovery techniques and economic viability for retired lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide-type lithium-ion power batteries

Exploration of physical recovery techniques and economic viability for retired lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide-type lithium-ion power batteries

Pathway decisions for reuse and recycling of retired lithium-ion batteries considering economic and environmental functions

Reuse and recycling of retired electric vehicle (EV) batteries offer a sustainable waste management approach but face decision-making challenges. Based on the process-based life cycle assessment method, we present a strategy to optimize pathways of retired battery treatments economically and environmentally. The strategy is applied to various reuse scenarios with capacity configurations, including energy storage systems, communication base stations, and low-speed vehicles. Hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and direct recycling considering battery residual values are evaluated at the end-of-life stage. For the optimized pathway, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries improve profits by 58% and reduce emissions by 18% compared to hydrometallurgical recycling without reuse. Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries boost profit by 19% and reduce emissions by 18%. Despite NMC batteries exhibiting higher immediate recycling returns, LFP batteries provide superior long-term benefits through reuse before recycling. Our strategy features an accessible evaluation framework for pinpointing optimal pathways of retired EV batteries.

Impact of plate-deflected flame on thermal runaway propagation of lithium-ion battery

Ceiling jet fire is a common phenomena in thermal runaway (TR) accidents of electric vehicle and energy storage power station scenarios based on lithium-ion battery, which is a potential risk of inducing large-scale fire spread in battery modules, but it is not been known clearly. This work investigates the influence of ceiling jet fire on TR propagation of lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) battery module by arranging a ceiling-like obstacle directly above the tested module. A series of overheat-induced TR propagation tests under different height (H) of ceiling-like obstacle are conducted to gain better understanding of the heat transfer mechanism. The heat transfer and average heating power of ceiling jet fire to adjacent cells are determined for the first time. Results indicate the TR propagation speed of the module accelerates with the decrease of H, and the TR propagation speed inside the cell is not affected by ceiling jet fire. More importantly, the heat transferred from cell experiencing TR to adjacent cells through ceiling jet fire (Qfl) decreases from 11087.33 J to 7872.02 J, and the ratio of Qfl to the total heat released in TR (ΔEtot) declines from 4.02 % to 2.85 % as H increases from 5 to 15 cm. Finally, the change process of contact thermal resistance between adjacent cells and its relationship with heating power are revealed during TR propagation. This work provides a basic understanding of the influence mechanism of ceiling jet fire on TR propagation, which possess important guidance for the safety protection of lithium-ion battery system.

Stress and Strain Characterization for Evaluating Mechanical Safety of Lithium-Ion Pouch Batteries under Static and Dynamic Loadings

The crashworthiness of electric vehicles depends on the response of lithium-ion cells to significant deformation and high strain rates. This study thoroughly explores the mechanical behavior due to damage of lithium-ion battery (LIB) cells, focusing on Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) types during both quasi-static indentation and dynamic high-velocity penetration tests. Employing a novel approach, a hemispherical indenter addresses gaps in stress–strain data for pouch cells, considering crucial factors like strain rate/load rate and battery cell type. In the finite element method (FEM) analysis, the mechanical response is investigated in two stages. First, a viscoplastic model is developed in Abaqus/Standard to predict the indentation test. Subsequently, a thermomechanical model is formulated to predict the high-speed-impact penetration test. Considering the high plastic strain rate of the LIB cell, adiabatic heating effects are incorporated into this model, eliminating heat conduction between elements. Addressing a notable discrepancy from prior research, this work explores the substantial reduction in force observed when transitioning from a single cell to a stack of two cells. The study aims to unveil the underlying reasons and provide insights into the mechanical behavior of stacked cells.

A Comprehensive Review of Functional Gel Polymer Electrolytes and Applications in Lithium-Ion Battery.

The rapid expansion of flexible and wearable electronics has necessitated a focus on ensuring their safety and operational reliability. Gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) have become preferred alternatives to traditional liquid electrolytes, offering enhanced safety features and adaptability to the design requirements of flexible lithium-ion batteries. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of recent advancements in GPE technology, highlighting significant improvements in its physicochemical properties, which contribute to superior long-term cycling stability and high-rate capacity compared with traditional organic liquid electrolytes. Special attention is given to the development of smart GPEs endowed with advanced functionalities such as self-protection, thermotolerance, and self-healing properties, which further enhance battery safety and reliability. This review also critically examines the application of GPEs in high-energy cathode materials, including lithium nickel cobalt manganese (NCM), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA), and thermally stable lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). Despite the advancements, several challenges in GPE development remain unresolved, such as improving ionic conductivity at low temperatures and ensuring mechanical integrity and interfacial compatibility. This review concludes by outlining future research directions and the remaining technical hurdles, providing valuable insights to guide ongoing and future efforts in the field of GPEs for lithium-ion batteries, with a particular emphasis on applications in high-energy and thermally stable cathodes.

Assessment of an eco-efficient process for the optimization of metal recovery in lithium cobalt oxide and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide batteries

The expansion of technology motivates the increase of global demands for critical minerals. In this context, the exploration of secondary sources of these components is expanding. End-of-life batteries can be seen as potential sources of lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese for electric vehicles or diverse applications in electronic equipments. This paper provides a comprehensive evaluation of the recovery of metals from waste batteries with diverse chemistry composition. Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NMC) batteries were co-treated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) channels under supercritical water, varying reaction temperature (400–600 °C) and PVC/Battery composition (0–3 m/m) in a tubular continuous reactor. Results show high recovery rates for all metals, with up to 90% percentage recovery of lithium and cobalt in all cases. Temperature and feed composition were identified as determining factors for the recovery of lithium from LCO batteries. In the case of cobalt, temperature was identified as the most important factor that affects its recovery. The selected optimal conditions for cobalt recovery in the solid products of reactions were identified for batteries LCO and NMC: temperature of 600 °C and PVC/Battery ratio of 3.0 and temperature of 500 °C and PVC/Battery ratio of 1.5, respectively. Environmental impacts, primarily Global Warming Potential (GWP), were minimal, with 4.71·10−5 kg CO2 eq., indicating the benefits of the process as an eco-efficient and promising route for the recycling of valuable metals.