Ngorongoro Research Articles

The Impact of drinking water source on disease transmission among pastoralists: The Case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

The study examined the impact of drinking water source on disease transmission among pastoralists, using a case study of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Tanzania. A total of four villages located in the NCA were sampled and studied, namely: Endulen, Nainokanoka, Kayapus and Meshili. This was a cross-sectional study which deployed questionnaires, direct observation, document reviews and focus group discussions. A total of 396 households participated in the survey. The collected data were analyzed using qualitative data analysis techniques and descriptive statistics such as frequencies. The study findings revealed that unfiltered waterholes shared among humans, livestock and wildlife accounted for 82.1%; indicating that it was the primary source of disease transmission. Other sources of disease transmissions were: the use of untreated tap water, rivers, spring water and rainwater. The factors influencing the use of unfiltered waterholes were limited access to tap water, scarcity of drinking water sources, drought, population increase and tourists. The co-usage of water coupled with lack of latrines suggest fecal contamination of drinking water sources. Women were more susceptible to waterborne diseases as they were more directly engaging in all domestic activities including fetching for water as compared to men. The waterborne diseases affecting pastoralist communities were diarrhea, cholera, skin infection, dysentery, worms and typhoid fever. The study concluded that there is a nexus between shared drinking water sources and the prevalence of high anthrax (Bacillus anthracis) infection rates. It is recommended that the adverse impacts of disease transmission on drinking water sources can be mitigated through increasing supply of tap water, using treated water and encouraging community use of pit latrines.

Assessing Habitat Suitability: The Case of Black Rhino in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area

Efforts to identify suitable habitat for wildlife conservation are crucial for safeguarding biodiversity, facilitating management, and promoting sustainable coexistence between wildlife and communities. Our study focuses on identifying potential black rhino (Diceros bicornis) habitat within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, across wet and dry seasons. To achieve this, we used remote sensing data with and without field data. We employed a comprehensive approach integrating Sentinel-2 and PlanetScope images, vegetation indices, and human activity data. We employed machine learning recursive feature elimination (RFE) and random forest (RF) algorithms to identify the most relevant features that contribute to habitat suitability prediction. Approximately 36% of the NCA is suitable for black rhinos throughout the year; however, there are seasonal shifts in habitat suitability. Anthropogenic factors increase land degradation and limit habitat suitability, but this depends on the season. This study found a higher influence of human-related factors during the wet season, with suitable habitat covering 53.6% of the NCA. In the dry season, browse availability decreases and rhinos are forced to become less selective of the areas where they move to fulfil their nutritional requirements, with anthropogenic pressures becoming less important. Furthermore, our study identified specific areas within the NCA that consistently offer suitable habitat across wet and dry seasons. These areas, situated between Olmoti and the Crater, exhibit minimal disturbance from human activities, presenting favourable conditions for rhinos. Although the Oldupai Gorge only has small suitable patches, it used to sustain a large population of rhinos in the 1960s. Land cover changes seem to have decreased the suitability of the Gorge. This study highlights the importance of combining field data with remotely sensed data. Remote sensing-based assessments rely on the importance of vegetation covers as a proxy for habitat and often overlook crucial field variables such as shelter or breeding locations. Overall, our study sheds light on the imperative of identifying suitable habitat for black rhinos within the NCA and underscores the urgency of intensified conservation efforts. Our findings underscore the need for adaptive conservation strategies to reverse land degradation and safeguard black rhino populations in this dynamic multiple land-use landscape as environmental and anthropogenic pressures evolve.

Evaluation of the Variability and Frequency of Infectious Diseases in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Ngorongoro District in Arusha Region, Tanzania

Evaluation of the Variability and Frequency of Infectious Diseases in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Ngorongoro District in Arusha Region, Tanzania

The Role of Maasai Culture in Tourism Industry Development in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

The tourism industry is the world’s largest industry and is being utilized for economic development and rapid growth in many developing countries. In Tanzania the tourism industry is growing at an annual rate of almost 5% and contributes 17% to GDP. Tanzanian tourism is based on wildlife tourism which requires not only programs for the conservation and protection of flora, fauna and the environment but also for job and wealth creation for the indigenous population who often pay a cost in lost land usage for conservation and tourism. The analysis encompasses a comprehensive examination of the myriad ways in which the vibrant tapestry of Maasai culture is artfully woven into the fabric of tourism activities. From immersive cultural encounters to the vibrant portrayal of traditions, this article scrutinized the techniques through which Maasai culture has become an integral facet of the visitor experience. The manifold benefits that this cultural fusion bestows upon the local community, catalyzing positive economic and social change within the Maasai population. Balancing the imperative of safeguarding Maasai culture's integrity with the necessity of meeting the ever-evolving demands of the tourism market represents an intricate and continuous endeavor in the dynamic landscape of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area.

The human and financial costs of conservation for local communities living around the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania

Protected areas have long been recognized globally as an important strategy for conserving biodiversity. However, the establishment of protected areas has often adversely impacted local livelihoods, particularly where people and their livelihoods are exposed to wildlife threats. Understanding the magnitude and the types of human and livelihood losses to wildlife can help to reduce the losses in the future. Here we collected and analysed a large and comprehensive historical data sets on crop damage, livestock depredation, and human attacks over eight years from January 2015 to October 2022 from Serengeti District and Ngorongoro Conservation Area to understand human and livelihood losses to wildlife in the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem (GSE). The data were government records of loss and compensation. Additionally, we performed individual interviews on what communities lose to wildlife in the area. We found that wildlife causes serious annual losses of crops (value estimated at USD 489,000) and livestock (USD 17,600). On average 22 people from villages beside or within the protected areas were injured each year and eight people were killed, usually by elephants. Compensation paid by the government to local communities only covered <20% of their total financial losses, and was also very little for the injury or loss of human life. Given our estimates are only for two administrative areas i.e. Serengeti District and Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the figure will be much higher if we include all districts around the GSE. These findings contribute to the broader conservation science field and the global discourse on human-wildlife conflict and coexistence. Protected area authorities should: a. take greater responsibility for protecting local communities and their assets from wildlife attacks, and b. assist the local communities with implementing deterrence and in establishing problematic animal prevention units in hotspot areas. In particular, we recommend that the Tanzanian Government should review the current compensation regulations to reflect the actual loss.

The Impact of Human Activities on Wildlife Conservation in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area

Human population growth in areas bordering protected areas is high and has become a serious threat to the management of wildlife all over Africa. Local communities around the protected areas conduct illegal activities that are destructive to habitats and threaten wildlife. This study explored the impact of the human population on large animals in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. The study used quantitative and qualitative research methods, employing both closed and open-ended questionnaires from 125 respondents. The collected data were analysed using IBM and Microsoft Excel tools. The results showed that wildlife and livestock can share and drink water in the same area. Furthermore, the study established that an increase in livestock numbers has no negative effect on wildlife numbers, but an increase in human settlement (93.9%) consumed natural forest products as building materials, creating deforestation, while the use of firewood as a source of power (96.5%) has a great negative impact on wildlife and their habitat because of fragmentation of wildlife habitat within Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Thus, there is a need to manage population growth along the national conserved or protected areas to ensure the long-term existence of designated protected areas.

Investigating tourists’ satisfaction with infrastructures located proximal to attractions

There is limited information concerning relationship between tourists' satisfaction and awareness of infrastructure locations, particularly with regard to associated impacts to the Outstanding universal values (OUVs). The study was conducted in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) World Heritage Site (WHS) in Tanzania employing a quantitative research approach. Theoretically, the study employed Expectancy-Disconfirmation model and Dissonance Theory on customer satisfactions. The study was guided by two null hypotheses: H01: Demographic characteristics (age, education, nationality and sex) do not influence tourist’s satisfactions with infrastructures located proximal to attractions; and H02: Tourists’ awareness of potential consequences of infrastructures located proximal to attractions do not influence their satisfactions. A multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed on the 210 responses to investigate the relationships between tourists’ demographic characteristics and awareness of potential consequences and satisfactions. Both hypotheses (H01 and H02) were rejected, indicating that tourists are satisfied with infrastructures located proximal to attractions despite being aware of the potential consequences. In addition, tourists who were aware were twice as likely as those who were not to be satisfied. However, highly educated tourists (Masters and PhD) were less likely to be satisfied of infrastructures located proximal to attractions compared to tourists with lower education levels. This study recommends that infrastructure developers and NCA WHS conservators collaborate to develop monitoring and evaluation strategies to constantly balance conservation and tourism objectives because tourists are more satisfied with infrastructure proximal to attractions. Future research should focus on new construction materials, designs and technology to safeguards WHS OUVs.

Prevalence and risk factors for Q fever, spotted fever group rickettsioses, and typhus group rickettsioses in a pastoralist community of northern Tanzania, 2016-2017.

In northern Tanzania, Q fever, spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsioses, and typhus group (TG) rickettsioses are common causes of febrile illness. We sought to describe the prevalence and risk factors for these zoonoses in a pastoralist community. Febrile patients ≥2 years old presenting to Endulen Hospital in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area were enrolled from August 2016 through October 2017. Acute and convalescent blood samples were collected, and a questionnaire was administered. Sera were tested by immunofluorescent antibody (IFA) IgG assays using Coxiella burnetii (Phase II), Rickettsia africae, and Rickettsia typhi antigens. Serologic evidence of exposure was defined by an IFA titre ≥1:64; probable cases by an acute IFA titre ≥1:128; and confirmed cases by a ≥4-fold rise in titre between samples. Risk factors for exposure and acute case status were evaluated. Of 228 participants, 99 (43.4%) were male and the median (interquartile range) age was 27 (16-41) years. Among these, 117 (51.3%) had C. burnetii exposure, 74 (32.5%) had probable Q fever, 176 (77.2%) had SFG Rickettsia exposure, 134 (58.8%) had probable SFG rickettsioses, 11 (4.8%) had TG Rickettsia exposure, and 4 (1.8%) had probable TG rickettsioses. Of 146 participants with paired sera, 1 (0.5%) had confirmed Q fever, 8 (5.5%) had confirmed SFG rickettsioses, and none had confirmed TG rickettsioses. Livestock slaughter was associated with acute Q fever (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 2.54, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.38-4.76) and sheep slaughter with SFG rickettsioses case (OR 4.63, 95% CI 1.08-23.50). Acute Q fever and SFG rickettsioses were detected in participants with febrile illness. Exposures to C. burnetii and to SFG Rickettsia were highly prevalent, and interactions with livestock were associated with increased odds of illness with both pathogens. Further characterisation of the burden and risks for these diseases is warranted.

The Prevalence of Leptospira Serovars in African Giant Pouched Rats (Cricetomys spp.) from the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

Leptospirosis, also known as Weil’s disease, is a febrile tropical disease of humans and diverse animals. The maintenance hosts of the infectious pathogen, Leptospira spp., are primarily rodents, while other warm-blooded animals and some reptiles are secondary or transient hosts of this pathogen. African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys spp.) have been identified to be important maintenance hosts of pathogenic leptospires in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This study assessed the seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in the African giant pouched rats of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, where there is close human, domestic animal, and wildlife interaction. A total of 50 African giant pouched rats were sampled between July 2020 and December 2021. Blood sera were screened for specific leptospiral antibodies using a microscopic agglutination test (MAT), while urine and kidney tissues were examined for the pathogen and pathogen-specific genes using cultures and polymerase chain reactions (PCR), respectively. The pathogen detection varied from 0% in cultures to 6% via the MAT and 20% via PCR. The Fisher exact test was applied to compare positive cases detected through the diagnostic tests, and showed a significant difference in the indirect and direct detection of Leptospira serovars via the MAT and PCR. We conclude that pathogenic Leptospira serovar are found in the NCA and recommend that the NCA authority raises awareness of the existence of the Leptospira serovar in giant African pouched rats, and possibly other rodents. The NCA should initiate appropriate management strategies, including the guided disposal of household garbage, which is the major attractant of rodents to residential areas. Where necessary, the NCA should carry out limited rodent control and periodic monitoring of the pathogen carrier (rodent) populations.

Obsidian Use in Archaeology: A New Insights from Ethnoarchaeological Perspective in Lake Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

Obsidian, a material of enduring archaeological fascination, has been the research focus due to its diverse applications within ancient societies. Its presence at archaeological sites has led scholars to attribute various uses to it, particularly during the Middle and Later Stone Age. This study was conducted to shed light on the social-cultural and symbolic utilization of obsidian in the Lake Eyasi Basin, revealing its intricate role in early and contemporary cultures. The investigation occurred in Mang’ola ward, Karatu District, and Olpiro village within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in the Arusha Region. Ethnographic data and direct observations were conducted on the Datoga people of Lake Eyasi Basin, with participants deliberately selected from diverse age groups. The research uncovered the multifaceted uses of obsidian, revealing that it serves as a protective shield against bad omens and evil spirits, and wards off misfortune.

Coexistence from a lion's perspective: Movements and habitat selection by African lions (Panthera leo) across a multi-use landscape.

Diminishing wild space and population fragmentation are key drivers of large carnivore declines worldwide. The persistence of large carnivores in fragmented landscapes often depends on the ability of individuals to move between separated subpopulations for genetic exchange and recovery from stochastic events. Where separated by anthropogenic landscapes, subpopulations' connectivity hinges on the area's socio-ecological conditions for coexistence and dispersing individuals' behavioral choices. Using GPS-collars and resource- and step-selection functions, we explored African lion (Panthera leo) habitat selection and movement patterns to better understand lions' behavioral adjustments in a landscape shared with pastoralists. We conducted our study in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, a multiuse rangeland, that connects the small, high density lion subpopulation of the Ngorongoro Crater with the extensive Serengeti lion population. Landscape use by pastoralists and their livestock in the NCA varies seasonally, driven by the availability of pasture, water, and disease avoidance. The most important factor for lion habitat selection was the amount of vegetation cover, but its importance varied with the distance to human settlements, season and time of day. Although we noted high levels of individual variation in tolerance for humans, in general lions avoided humans on the landscape and used more cover when closer to humans. Females showed more consistent avoidance of humans and stronger use of cover when near humans than did males. Connectivity of lion subpopulations does not appear to be blocked by sparse pastoralist settlements, and nomadic males, key to subpopulation connectivity, significantly avoided humans during the day, suggesting a behavioral strategy for conflict mitigation. These results are consistent with lions balancing risk from humans with exploitation of livestock by altering their behaviors to reduce potential conflict. Our study lends some optimism for the adaptive capacity of lions to promote coexistence with humans in shared landscapes.

Habitat Use and Diet Composition of the Common Eland (Tragelaphus oryx) in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) is renowned worldwide for its multiple land use where pastoralism and wildlife conservation co-exist. Thus, the NCA must meet a delicate balance of competing needs between livestock and wildlife. Currently the NCA is conducting resettlement program to facilitate pastoralists who are willing to move and resettle outside of the conservation area in order to reduce the number of people and livestocks in NCA. The common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) are among the large herbivore species found in the NCA that might be affected by possible competition between livestock and wildlife. The information on this species including habitat utilization and feeding ecology is limited. This study therefore, investigated the factors influencing habitat use and diet composition of the common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) in NCA. Data were collected along 82 pre-established transects using direct field survey. The study therefore assessed habitat use, distribution patterns, diet composition and conservation threats facing the common eland in NCA, The results indicated that the grassland habitat was mainly used by elands (&gt; 85% in both dry and wet seasons), while other habitats were least used (&lt; 15%). Eland diet composition varied significantly among plant species, with the animals most frequently feeding on Themeda triandra but rarely on Vachellia tortilis and Hibiscus aponeurus. The study concludes with recommendations for enhancement of grassland habitat management and reduced anthropogenic activities to enhance eland conservation in NCA.

Land-Use Conflicts and an Alternative Wildlife Management Option for the Loliondo Game-controlled Area, Tanzania: Insights from a Community Survey

Summary This tourism case study pays attention to natural resource management conflicts surrounding the Loliondo Game-controlled Area which encompasses 4000 km 2 adjacent to Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Maasai, the largest nomadic pastoralist ethnic group in Tanzania, accounts for the overwhelming majority of the population residing in the Loliondo Game-controlled Area. The Loliondo Game-controlled Area has suffered from land-use and property-right conflicts among stakeholders despite establishing a series of wildlife management policies concerning the area. Trophy-hunting tourism has been operated in the Loliondo Game-controlled Area by a transnational private corporation with the Tanzanian government’s exclusive permission. Trophy hunting conflicts with other land uses in the Loliondo Game-controlled Area, including non-consumptive tourism, pastoral livelihoods, and crop farming. Although the Village Land Act 1999 recognizes customary rights vested with local villages to wildlife management in the Game-controlled Areas, the Maasai communities in the Loliondo Game-controlled Area have yet to reap benefits from trophy hunting or photography tourism. To identify an alternative wildlife management option preferred by the Maasai communities, a community survey was conducted in 2018. A sample of 330 households was surveyed, with 55 in each of the six selected villages in the Loliondo Game-controlled Area. The survey confirmed that the Maasai communities were not involved in the decision-making process for wildlife management. This study has found that the Maasai communities strongly support establishing a Joint Venture Wildlife Management Area of 1500 km 2 within the Loliondo Game-controlled Area, with the remaining 2500 km 2 being allocated to grazing, farming, and human settlements. Under the Joint Venture Wildlife Management Area scheme, local villages would jointly manage wildlife and be entitled to rights to manage and use wildlife and other natural resources in the region. The overwhelming majority of the participants in the community survey were optimistic that the co-management scheme would help enhance natural resource management efficiency and social equity. Information © The Authors 2023

Assessment of Social-Economic Impact of Road Construction Projects in Conserved Areas: Evidence from Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority in Tanzania

This study was aimed to assess the social-economic impact of road construction projects in Tanzania by using the evidence from Ngorongoro Conservation Area. The area has been reserved because of its importance in providing habitat to a number of wild animals. The study employed a case study design in which 98 respondents from Ngorongoro Conversation Area were involved. Data were collected by questionnaires and were analysed by using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) technique. The key findings of the study revealed that road construction projects have positive influence on both social and economic performance. . Nevertheless, our study posits that social performance can mediate the relationship between road construction projects and economic performance. Our study offers practical and social implications by providing insights through empirical results about the debatable phenomenal on the importance of road infrastructure to the social-economic development of developing countries

Maasai in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area: Sustainable Development and Traditionality

The paper highlights the modern problems of sustainable development of protected areas with the living indigenous peoples on the example of the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in northern Tanzania. NCA for 30 years (since 1959) has been a unique long-term experiment to maintain a stable coexistence of wild animal populations and the Maasai community practicing traditional methods of cattle breeding. Options for the development of NCA are discussed, taking into account new challenges, such as the growth of the population of Maasai people and livestock and the need to expand the area of the NCA strictly protected zone. The interviews conducted by the authors among the young Maasai of Ngorongoro have demonstrated that this the most advanced group of young people can be characterized by the specific combination of traditional and modern trends as regards to the future life plans, access to modern technical means, attitude towards the traditions and trends on the blurring of the stereotypes of reproductive and sexual behavior including information on the self-protection against malaria and COVID. One of the acceptable solutions for the provision of the sustainable development of Ngorongoro conservation area could be the relocation of the part of the Maasai population for the decrease of the competition for resources with the wildlife and the control of the abundance of the Maasai cattle.

Radiometric dating of the Ootun palaeosol and its implication for the age of the Shifting Sand in Ngorongoro Lengai Geopark (Arusha, Tanzania)

The Shifting Sand is a barchan dune in Ngorongoro Lengai Geopark in Arusha, Tanzania. The geopark, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is protected by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority. The dune ranks amongst the main geosites that have been attracting numerous tourists; it formed as a result of volcanic ash eruptions that led to tephra deposition on a palaeosol (palaeosurface) in the Ootun area. The easterly winds modified the ash into dunes and headed to the Olduvai Gorge area. The age of the Shifting Sand dune is not known in detail. In the present study, we employ the radiocarbon (14C) dating method to date a subsurface palaeosol bed in the Ootun area where the tephra (i.e., original Shifting Sand materials) was originally deposited. An Accelerator Mass Spectrometer was used to determine the carbon-14 date of the palaeosol so as to estimate the age of the Shifting Sand dune, and an Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescent Spectrometer to determine the chemical composition of the Shifting Sand material and the tephra bed for correlative purposes. A radiocarbon (14C) date of 2510 ± 30 years BP for the Ootun palaeosol was obtained to estimate the minimum age of the Ootun subsurface tephra deposited in the area; since then, this started to move westwards towards the Olduvai Gorge area, where it is today defined as the Shifting Sand. The current findings add educational value to the Shifting Sand in Ngorongoro Lengai Geopark and improve our understanding of the eruption history of the Gregory Rift volcanoes.

Environment or (Collective) Human Rights: What Is More Important?

This article reflects on the ‘Yellowstone model’ of environmental conservation while considering the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)/ International Council of Monuments and Sites /International Union for Conservation of Nature’s recommendation on the voluntary relocation of Maasai residents from the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) in Tanzania. While advocating for an inclusive conservation approach, it synthesizes the extent to which the relocation has affected the collective socioeconomic and cultural rights of the Maasai in the property. It discusses the concept of Yellowstone conservation model, and subsequently traces the legal background to the existence of the Maasai in the NCA. The NCA’s statuses as a UNESCO heritage site of outstanding universal value, international biosphere reserve, and a global geo-park are also canvassed in the light of multiple-land use model. It further critically discusses the practical impacts of controlling the growing Maasai population at the site through induced voluntary relocation. The authors have drawn lessons from the Inter-American human rights system on the same area of conservation. Ultimately, the article concludes with practical recommendations and proposed issues for further research on this controversial topic.

Drivers of Human‒wildlife interactions in a co-existence area: a case study of the Ngorongoro conservation area, Tanzania

Communities in Africa bordering national parks or protected areas commonly overlap with wildlife. However, it is unclear to what degree such overlaps result in interactions with wildlife. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) was designated a multiple land-use conservation area in 1959. Maasai and Datoga pastoralists and Hadzabe hunter-gatherers reside with protected wildlife in NCA. The study was carried out in four Maasai villages within the NCA, including Kayapus, Endulen, Meshili, and Nainokanoka. A cross-sectional study was used to assess drivers of human‒wildlife interactions using questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions, and field visits. A total of 396 households participated in the survey. The collected data were analysed using qualitative data analysis techniques and descriptive statistics such as frequencies and means. The habitat, which comprises water, pasture, shelter, and space, accounted for 100% of interactions, indicating that it is the primary driver of human‒wildlife conflict. Other driving factors for human‒wildlife interactions are the increase in wildlife, collections of firewood, domestic animals kept, and influence of community sleeping arrangements, searching for traditional medicines, and killing of lions for ritual purposes or defense. Large household sizes (36 family members) coupled with climate change have also driven and fuelled human‒wildlife interactions. Challenges identified as threatening human‒wildlife co-existence are injuries, deaths, disease transmission, and destruction of property. To mitigate human‒wildlife conflicts, the following are recommended: the increase in boarding schools coupled with the increase in enrolment of students in boarding schools or providing reliable transport, distribution of tap water, increasing food assistance to the community living in poverty, controlling population increase through reallocation the population in other areas, introducing zero-grazing, using biogas, discouraging community sleeping arrangements, i.e., humans with calves in the same house, improving record-keeping of the wildlife attacks, provisional dissemination of research findings to the community.

Geochemical, Mineralogical, and Geomorphological Characterization of Ash Materials as a Tracer for the Origin of Shifting Sands near Oldupai Gorge, Ngorongoro, Tanzania.

Shifting sand (SS) is a single dune-shaped mass of black ash material moving across western Ngorongoro in northern Tanzania. The moving sand has become an important tourist destination for several decades. Despite being part of the important geosites at the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, the nature, origin, and behaviors demonstrated by SS remain poorly understood. This work contributes toward understanding the nature and identification of the possible origin of the SS through the correlation of geochemical, mineralogical, and geomorphological data of ash material from four selected locations in the study area. To achieve this goal, elemental, mineralogical, and morphological characterization of ash samples was performed by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence, polarized petrographic microscopy, automated sieve shaker, and binocular microscopy techniques, respectively. Correlation studies were based on magnesian-ferriferous associations, similarities in mineralogy, particle size, shape, and distribution patterns of ash materials, and weather data. There are close similarities in the chemical compositions among ash samples of SS, Ootun area, and Oldoinyo Lengai. Augite and magnetite minerals appear only in samples of SS, Ootun area, and Oldoinyo Lengai, while hornblende appears only in the samples from the Ngorongoro crater. Oldoinyo Lengai rock petrography revealed significant amounts of augite minerals. Blocky and elongated-shaped ash particles dominate the samples from SS, Ootun area, and Oldoinyo Lengai. The particle size of ash materials decreases westwards across the study site. The distribution patterns of ash material align with the west-south-west wind direction. Based on these findings, the study concludes that SS and Ootun ash could be tephra depositions resulting from past volcanic eruptions of Oldoinyo Lengai.

Assessment of Groundwater Quality under Changing Climate in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania

Assessment of Groundwater Quality under Changing Climate in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania