Next-generation Transparent Electrodes Research Articles

Quantum Gas-Enabled Direct Mapping of Active Current Density in Percolating Networks of Nanowires.

Electrically percolating nanowire networks are among the most promising candidates for next-generation transparent electrodes. Scientific interest in these materials stems from their intrinsic current distribution heterogeneity, leading to phenomena like percolating pathway rerouting and localized self-heating, which can cause irreversible damage. Without an experimental technique to resolve the current distribution and an underpinning nonlinear percolation model, one relies on empirical rules and safety factors to engineer materials. We introduce Bose-Einstein condensate microscopy to address the longstanding problem of imaging active current flow in 2D materials. We report on performance improvement of this technique whereby observation of dynamic redistribution of current pathways becomes feasible. We show how this, combined with existing thermal imaging methods, eliminates the need for assumptions between electrical and thermal properties. This will enable testing and modeling individual junction behavior and hot-spot formation. Investigating both reversible and irreversible mechanisms will contribute to improved performance and reliability of devices.

Modulation of the optical and transport properties of epitaxial SrNbO3 thin films by defect engineering

The discovery of strontium niobate (SNO) as a potentially new transparent electrode has generated much interest due to its implications in various optoelectronic devices. Pristine SNO exhibits exceptionally low resistivity (∼10−4 Ω cm) at room temperature. However, this low resistivity occurs due to large number of carrier concentration in the system, which significantly affects its optical transparency (∼40%) in the visible range and hinders its practical applications as a transparent electrode. Here, we show that modulating the growth kinetics via oxygen manipulation is a feasible approach to achieve the desired optoelectronic properties. In particular, epitaxial (001) SNO thin films are grown on (001) lanthanum aluminate by pulsed laser deposition at different oxygen partial pressures and are shown to improve the optical transparency from 40% to 72% (λ = 550 nm) at a marginal cost of electrical resistivity from 2.8 to 8.1 × 10−4 Ω cm. These changes are directly linked with the multi-valence Nb-states, as evidenced by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Furthermore, the defect-engineered SNO films exhibit multiple electronic phases that include pure metallic, coexisting metal-semiconducting-like, and pure semiconducting-like phases as evidenced by low-temperature electrical transport measurements. The intriguing metal-semiconducting coexisting phase is thoroughly analyzed using both perpendicular and angle-dependent magnetoresistance measurements, further supported by a density functional theory-based first-principles study and the observed feature is explained by the quantum correction to the conductivity. Overall, this study shows an exciting avenue for altering the optical and transport properties of SNO epitaxial thin films for their practical use as a next-generation transparent electrode.

Conductive Nanofiber Web Film with Polydimethylsiloxane Sidewalls Selectively Coated through a Plasma Process for High Performance Flexible Transparent Electrodes.

Transparent electrodes are commonly used in various applications, such as solar cells, touch screens, smart windows, wearable electronic devices, and rollable flexible displays. Currently, indium tin oxide (ITO) is widely used as a transparent electrode material. However, ITO is not suitable for next-generation transparent electrodes that require flexibility; therefore, alternative nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, conductive polymers, and metal nanowires, are being studied. However, these nanomaterials have poor mechanical strength and limited substrate availability. In this study, we developed a high-performance transparent electrode web film fabrication process based on conductive nanofibers, in which metal nanofibers are semiembedded in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The mechanical strength of the conductive nanofibers was improved through the PDMS coating on the entire surface of the film, and the semiembedded structure of the nanofibers was realized using the reactive ion etching (RIE) process. In this study, we confirmed through transparency/conductivity analysis and bending, cycle, and taping tests that the transparent electrode fabricated using our approach has excellent mechanical strength and conductivity. Finally, the transparent electrode fabricated using our method can be widely applied as a next-generation transparent electrode because the process is easy and simple and requires inexpensive equipment and materials.

Analysis of the amorphous SiInZnO/Ag/amorphous SiInZnO multilayer structure as a next-generation transparent electrode using essential macleod program simulation

Analysis of the amorphous SiInZnO/Ag/amorphous SiInZnO multilayer structure as a next-generation transparent electrode using essential macleod program simulation

Robust method for uniform coating of carbon nanotubes with V2O5 for next-generation transparent electrodes and Li-ion batteries.

Composites comprising vanadium-pentoxide (V2O5) and single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are promising components for emerging applications in optoelectronics, solar cells, chemical and electrochemical sensors, etc. We propose a novel, simple, and facile approach for SWCNT covering with V2O5 by spin coating under ambient conditions. With the hydrolysis-polycondensation of the precursor (vanadyl triisopropoxide) directly on the surface of SWCNTs, the nm-thick layer of oxide is amorphous with a work function of 4.8 eV. The material recrystallizes after thermal treatment at 600 °C, achieving the work function of 5.8 eV. The key advantages of the method are that the obtained coating is uniform with a tunable thickness and does not require vacuuming or heating during processing. We demonstrate the groundbreaking results for two V2O5/SWCNT applications: transparent electrode and cathode for Li-ion batteries. As a transparent electrode, the composite shows stable sheet resistance of 160 Ω sq-1 at a 90% transmittance (550 nm) - the best performance reported for SWCNTs doped by metal oxides. As a cathode material, the obtained specific capacity (330 mA h g-1) is the highest among all the other V2O5/SWCNT cathodes reported so far. This approach opens new horizons for the creation of the next generation of metal oxide composites for various applications, including optoelectronics and electrochemistry.

One-Way Continuous Deposition of Monolayer MXene Nanosheets for the Formation of Two Confronting Transparent Electrodes in Flexible Capacitive Photodetector.

MXenes based on titanium carbide are promising next-generation transparent electrode materials due to their high metallic conductivity, optical transparency, mechanical flexibility, and abundant hydrophilic surface functionality. MXene electrodes offer a much wider conductive surface coverage than metal nanowires, thereby gaining popularity as flexible electrode materials in supercapacitors and energy devices. However, given that monolayer MXene nanosheets are only a few nanometers thick, meticulous surface treatments and deposition technologies are required for a practical implementation of these transparent electrodes. Unfortunately, a capacitor produced by forming high-quality transparent MXene electrodes on both sides of a film has not yet been reported. We report the successful development of a one-way continuous deposition technology to form high-quality MXene nanosheet-based transparent electrodes on both surfaces of a polymer film without large physical stresses on the MXene nanosheets. One transparent electrode was formed by transferring MXene nanosheets predeposited on a temporary glass substrate to the film surface, while the other was directly deposited on the exposed film surface. The Ti3AlC2 precursor (MAX) was synthesized via a spark plasma sintering crystallization, and the MXene nanosheets were prepared via a subsequent Al-selective etching and delamination. We used this material to implement a capacitive photodetector consisting of two layers of opposing transparent electrodes. The flexible photodetector was based on poly(vinyl butyral) (PVB), which was solidly bonded with MXene nanosheets to serve as a free-standing binder for the Cu-doped ZnS semiconductor particles. The fabricated device exhibited excellent mechanical stability due to the high affinity between the MXene nanosheets and PVB. Furthermore, the device exhibited an initial capacitance of 2 nF, photosensitivity of 12.5 μF/W, and rise and decay times of 0.031 and 0.751 s, respectively. All these parameters were 1 to 2 orders of magnitude higher or faster than reported capacitive photodetectors. Overall, the proposed approach resolves the core issues associated with existing metal nanowire-based electrodes, and it is a breakthrough in the development of next-generation flexible devices comprising two layers of confronting transparent electrodes.

Mask-free patterning of Cu mesh as smart windows by spatially modulated nanosecond laser pulses

Laser direct fabrication of metallic mesh is a very promising structure for the next-generation transparent electrodes due to its outstanding optical and electrical properties. However, photoelectric properties and morphologies of the metallic mesh electrodes are not excellent after Gaussian pulse laser writing technology, which largely restricts the development of laser direct ablation process for the fabrication of high-quality transparent electrodes. In this study, we present newly developed copper mesh transparent electrode by spatially modulated one-step top-flat square nanosecond laser direct writing ablation of Cu film under ambient conditions. The copper square shaped electrode without outward radial mass transfer of molten metal, and no structural deformation and damage on the edge of metallic meshes. The clean square shaped of copper meshes structure not only shows high optical transparency in visual region and excellent a filtration in NIR regions, but also presents electrothermogenic of conductive copper mesh. In addition, the clean square shaped of copper mesh electrode on glass was demonstrated enhanced thermal shielding efficiency and defrost test as the smart windows.

Improvement of PEDOT:PSS linearity via controlled addition process.

Poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), which is a conductive polymer, has gained immense attention as a next-generation transparent electrode. However, in order to realize its practical application, it is imperative that its optical and electrical properties should be improved. Generally, acid dopants are added to improve optical and electrical properties. In this study, however, we replaced the batch process used for manufacturing PEDOT:PSS with a controlled addition process to improve its optical and electrical properties efficiently without additional additives and processes. In this process, the rate of polymerization and the structure of the product could be regulated by controlling the amount of monomer and catalyst. Moreover, we investigated the efficiency of the controlled addition process both theoretically and experimentally. The proposed approach was used to increase the linearity of PEDOT and the proportion of PEDOT attached to the PSS chain to improve transmittance by 6.2% (73 to 79.2% at 100 ohm) and conductivity by 39.68% (446 to 623 S cm−1). It was determined that the properties of PEDOT:PSS could be improved using the proposed method during the polymerization process.

Recent progress of solution-processed Cu nanowires transparent electrodes and their applications.

Research on next-generation transparent electrode (TE) materials to replace expensive and fragile indium tin oxide (ITO) is crucial for future electronics. Copper nanowires (Cu NWs) are considered as one of the most promising alternatives due to their excellent electrical properties and low-cost processing. This review summarizes the recent progress on the synthesis methods of long Cu NWs, and the fabrication techniques and protection measures for Cu NW TEs. Applications of Cu NW TEs in electronics, such as solar cells, touch screens, and light emitting diodes (LEDs), are discussed.

Spectral Tuning of Plasmonic Absorption for High-Transmittance Nanostructured Metal Electrodes

Networks of metal nanostructures are considered promising candidates for next-generation transparent electrodes. However, localized surface plasmon-mediated absorption at specific visible wavelengths limits their extensive use in a diverse range of photonic applications. This study proposes a strategy that spectrally tunes plasmonic absorption modes within periodic metal nanostructures with the aim of obtaining high-transmittance, transparent electrodes. A theoretical analysis of the periodic Ag nanostructures identifies localized surface plasmon resonances that have asymmetric (i.e., air-concentrated or substrate-concentrated) energy distributions due to the underlying substrate. The wavelength of a substrate-concentrated mode can be readily shifted by using a rationally designed dielectric spacer, which is leveraged to avoid plasmonic absorption at target wavelengths. A scattering analysis of a single Ag nanorod qualitatively supports the spectral tuning of plasmonic absorption modes. These theoretical findings will provide useful information for designing metal nanostructures for general transmission or absorption devices.

Direct Room Temperature Welding and Chemical Protection of Silver Nanowire Thin Films for High Performance Transparent Conductors.

Silver nanowire (Ag-NW) thin films have emerged as a promising next-generation transparent electrode. However, the current Ag-NW thin films are often plagued by high NW-NW contact resistance and poor long-term stability, which can be largely attributed to the ill-defined polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) surface ligands and nonideal Ag-PVP-Ag contact at NW-NW junctions. Herein, we report a room temperature direct welding and chemical protection strategy to greatly improve the conductivity and stability of the Ag-NW thin films. Specifically, we use a sodium borohydride (NaBH4) treatment process to thoroughly remove the PVP ligands and produce a clean Ag-Ag interface that allows direct welding of NW-NW junctions at room temperature, thus greatly improving the conductivity of the Ag-NW films, outperforming those obtained by thermal or plasmonic thermal treatment. We further show that, by decorating the as-formed Ag-NW thin film with a dense, hydrophobic dodecanethiol layer, the stability of the Ag-NW film can be greatly improved by 150-times compared with that of PVP-wrapped ones. Our studies demonstrate that a proper surface ligand design can effectively improve the conductivity and stability of Ag-NW thin films, marking an important step toward their applications in electronic and optoelectronic devices.

Design Parameters for Subwavelength Transparent Conductive Nanolattices.

Recent advancements with the directed assembly of block copolymers have enabled the fabrication over cm2 areas of highly ordered metal nanowire meshes, or nanolattices, which are of significant interest as transparent electrodes. Compared to randomly dispersed metal nanowire networks that have long been considered the most promising next-generation transparent electrode material, such ordered nanolattices represent a new design paradigm that is yet to be optimized. Here, through optical and electrical simulations, we explore the potential design parameters for such nanolattices as transparent conductive electrodes, elucidating relationships between the nanowire dimensions, defects, and the nanolattices' conductivity and transmissivity. We find that having an ordered nanowire network significantly decreases the length of nanowires required to attain both high transmissivity and high conductivity, and we quantify the network's tolerance to defects in relation to other design constraints. Furthermore, we explore how both optical and electrical anisotropy can be introduced to such nanolattices, opening an even broader materials design space and possible set of applications.

Comparison of properties of polymer organic solar cells prepared using highly conductive modified PEDOT:PSS films by spin- and spray-coating methods

Bulk heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells have made great progress over the past decade and consequently are now attracting extensive academic and commercial interest because of their potential advantages: lightweight, flexible, low cost, and high-throughput production. Polymer conductivity is a key factor for improving the performance of electronic and photonic devices. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is promising for use as a next-generation transparent electrode of optoelectronic devices. In this research, we compare the effect of nanomorphology on conductivity, and power conversion efficiency of polymer organic solar cells prepared by the spin- and spray-coating methods. To improve the conductivity of spray-deposited PEDOT:PSS, we modified the PEDOT:PSS films by simple UV irradiation and by UV irradiation with treatment using various solvents such as methanol, ethanol, acetone, acetonitrile, hydrochloric acid, and sulfuric acid to form a hole transport layer (HTL). The active layer of PTB7:PC70BM is spray-coated on top of the PEDOT:PSS layer. The films were examined by optical spectroscopy, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and conductivity measurements. The surface morphology of the deposited films was examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The current density–voltage (J–V) characteristics were measured under illumination with simulated solar light at 100 mW/cm2 (AM 1.5G) using an oriel 1000 W solar simulator. The obtained results are expected to have a considerable impact and suggest a bright future for organic polymer solar cells.

Solution-Processed PEDOT:PSS Films with Conductivities as Indium Tin Oxide through a Treatment with Mild and Weak Organic Acids

New transparent conductive materials are urgently needed for optoelectronic devices. Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) will be a promising next-generation transparent electrode material if its conductivity is comparable to that of indium tin oxide (ITO). To enhance significantly the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS with mild compounds has practical significance. In this work, significant conductivity enhancements are achieved on PEDOT:PSS films after treatment with mild and weak organic acids. The treated PEDOT:PSS films exibit metallic behavior at room temperature. Their conductivity increases to about 3300 S cm(-1) after they are treated with 8 M methanesulfonic acid. The conductivity enhancement depends on the acidity and physical properties of the organic acids. The mechanism for the conductivity enhancement is ascribed to proton transfer from the mild or weak organic acids to PSS(-) of PEDOT:PSS. There are two factors for the proton transfer from mild or weak organic acids to PSS. One factor is the high acid concentration during the treatment, particularly after the vaporization of the water solvent. Another factor is the phase segregation of PSSH from PEDOT:PSS, because PSSH is hydrophilic, whereas PEDOT is hydrophobic. This method is better than that using very strong and corrosive acids like sulfuric acid. These highly conductive and highly transparent PEDOT:PSS films are promising for use as next-generation transparent electrodes.

“Secondary doping” methods to significantly enhance the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS for its application as transparent electrode of optoelectronic devices

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is the most successful conducting polymer in terms of the practical application. It can be dispersed in water and some polar organic solvents, and high-quality PEDOT:PSS films can be readily prepared through solution processing. In addition, PEDOT:PSS is highly transparent in the visible range and has excellent thermal stability. Nevertheless, PEDOT:PSS has a problem of low conductivity. The as-prepared PEDOT:PSS films from its aqueous solution have a conductivity of lower than 1Scm−1, which severely impedes the application of PEDOT:PSS in various aspects. It has been discovered that the conductivity of as-prepared PEDOT:PSS from its aqueous solution can be significantly enhanced by adding organic compounds like high-boiling point polar organic solvents, ionic liquids and surfactants or through a post-treatment of PEDOT:PSS films with organic compounds, including high-boiling point polar solvents, salts, zwitterions, cosolvents, organic and inorganic acids. Conductivity of more than 3000Scm−1 was recently observed on PEDOT:PSS films after treated with sulfuric acid. This conductivity is comparable to that of indium tin oxide (ITO), the conventional transparent electrode material of optoelectronic devices. In addition, PEDOT:PSS has high mechanical flexibility while ITO is a brittle material. Thus, PEDOT:PSS is very promising to be the next-generation transparent electrode material. This article reviews the methods to enhance the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS, the mechanisms for the conductivity enhancements and the application of the highly conductive PEDOT:PSS films in polymer light-emitting diodes and polymer solar cells.

The role of propagating modes in silver nanowire arrays for transparent electrodes

Silver nanowires have been shown to demonstrate enhanced transmission and promising potential for next-generation transparent electrodes. In this paper, we systematically investigated the electrical and optical properties of 1D and 2D silver nanowire arrays as a function of diameter and pitch and compared their performance to that of silver thin films. Silver nanowires were found to exhibit enhanced transmission over thin films due to propagating resonance modes between nanowires. We evaluated the angular dependence and dispersion relation of these propagating modes and demonstrate that larger nanowire diameters and pitches are favored for achieving higher solar transmission at a particular sheet resistance. Silver nanowires may achieve achieve solar transmission > 90% with sheet resistances of a few Ω/sq and figure of merit σdc/σop > 1000.

Significant Different Conductivities of the Two Grades of Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):Poly(styrenesulfonate), Clevios P and Clevios PH1000, Arising from Different Molecular Weights

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is promising to be the next-generation transparent electrode of optoelectronic devices. This paper reports the differences between two commercially available grades of PEDOT:PSS: Clevios P and Clevios PH1000. The as-prepared PEDOT:PSS films from Clevios P and Clevios PH1000 solutions have close conductivities of 0.2-0.35 S cm(-1). Their conductivities can be enhanced to 171 and 1164 S cm(-1), respectively, through a treatment with hydrofluoroacetone trihydrate (HFA). The differences between Clevios P and Clevios PH1000 were studied by various characterizations on PEDOT:PSS aqueous solutions and PEDOT:PSS films. The gel particles are larger in Clevios PH1000 solution than in Clevios P solution as revealed by dynamic light scattering and fluorescence spectroscopy of pyrene in these solutions. These results suggest that PEDOT of Clevios PH1000 has a higher average molecular weight than that of Clevios P. The difference in the molecular weight of PEDOT for the two grades of PEDOT:PSS is confirmed by the characterizations on their polymer films, including atomic force microscopy and temperature dependences of the resistances of as-prepared and HFA-treated PEDOT:PSS films. The different molecular weights of PEDOT also gives rise to significant differences in the electrochemical behaviors of the two grades of PEDOT:PSS, as revealed by the cyclic voltammetry, in situ UV-vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy and potentiostatic transient measurements.

Electrical and Optical Properties as Functions of the TiO$_2$ Content in ZnO Films for Next-generation Transparent Electrodes

Electrical and Optical Properties as Functions of the TiO$_2$ Content in ZnO Films for Next-generation Transparent Electrodes