Net Spacers Research Articles

Synthesis of porphyrin triads chelated with thallium(III) for studies of ground-state hole/electron transfer

Four target all-porphyrin triads have been prepared for fundamental studies of ground-state hole/electron transfer. Each triad contains thallium(III) porphyrins as bookends, which bear mesityl groups at the three non-linking meso-positions. The central porphyrin is a free base or thallium(III) porphyrin bearing mesityl or pentafluorophenyl groups at the two non-linking meso-positions. The linker is a 4,4′-diphenylethyne unit joined at the porphyrin meso-positions. The net spacer between the two bookend thallium(III) porphyrins thus consists of diphenylethyne–porphyrin–diphenylethyne and is designed as a superexchange element for through-bond hole/electron transfer. The energetics of the superexchange element are tunable given the nature of the substituents and metalation state of the central porphyrin. The synthesis entailed Sonogashira coupling of two building blocks, a free base bis(4-iodophenyl)porphyrin and a mono-ethynylporphinato thallium(III) chloride. Two benchmark porphyrins also were prepared. Absorption spectral comparisons are provided including of the all-thallium(III) monomer, dimer, and triad.

Improved Power Production in Reverse Electrodialysis Stacks with Ion‐Permselective Woven Net Spacers

In traditional reverse electrodialysis (RED) stacks, the output power is severely lost due to the shadow effect caused by the nonpermselective spacers. To inhibit the spacer shadow effect, a design on ion‐permselective woven net spacer is proposed. By combining the linear sweep voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy methods, the effectiveness of permselective woven net spacer is validated together with the shadow effect and concentration polarization measured quantitatively. Additionally, their influence on stack resistance and power production is investigated under various factors. When contrasted to nonpermselective spacers, the use of permselective woven net spacers reduces the spacer shadow effect by 90% whereas also exacerbating the concentration polarization. This results in a higher power density due to a dramatic reduction in resistance. However, compared with permselective spacers, the permselective woven net spacers increase the power density due to its weaker concentration polarization. The factors including the solution concentration, temperature, and spacer thickness have a considerable influence on the power production of stack. Especially, increasing the concentration of concentrated solution alone is most beneficial to improving the output power while the impact of spacer thickness is the weakest.

Theoretical and experimental investigation of tensile properties of net warp-knitted spacer fabrics

This work aimed to investigate the tensile behavior of net warp-knitted spacer fabrics using the experimental and theoretical approaches. Tensile behavior of the warp-knitted spacer fabrics is one of the fundamental parameters which rarely considered in the literature. Therefore, the net spacer fabrics were made with three different variables (fabric thickness, size of meshes, and the position of meshes of the outer layer with respect to each other) in order to study the effects of structural parameters on the tensile behavior. A 2D net-fabric which used for the outer fabrics was made for in-depth considerations and also the comparison between the 2D fabrics and spacer fabrics. The initial linear elastic modulus of the 2D fabrics and the initial linear elastic modulus of the spacer fabrics were selected for the assessment of the tensile characteristics. First, a mechanical model was developed based on the geometrical structures and material properties of the 2D fabrics using energy method and Castigliano’s theorem. Then, the effects of spacer yarns on the tensile behavior of spacer fabrics were taken into account. The latter model was proposed using the bending theory of a curved bar. Experimental data were compared with the values obtained from the theoretical approaches and the end results showed that the developed models can predict the modulus reasonably. Moreover, the results indicated that the tensile behavior of the spacer fabrics are independent of the position of the holes in the outer layer whilst the fabric thickness and size of meshes affect the tensile modulus.

Effect of non-woven net spacer on a direct contact membrane distillation performance: Experimental and theoretical studies

This study provides a comprehensive and systematic overview of the fundamental characteristics of heat and mass transfer in the direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) process that employs different types of spacers on one or both surfaces of the membrane. Detailed theoretical investigations were carried out to demonstrate the effects of spacers adjacent to the membrane surface on heat and mass transfer enhancement in the DCMD with a PTFE/PP composite membrane, complemented with experimental data for model validation. Thus, this work aimed to propose and demonstrate the heat transfer correlation for spacer-filled channels to reliably predict the heat and mass transfer improvement by non-woven net spacers in the DCMD process. The results showed that the permeate flux enhancement by the spacers ranged between 7% and 19% only for the spacer-filled permeate channels and between 21% and 33% only for the spacer-filled feed channels even at higher flow rates, thus indicating lower flux enhancements in the spacer-filled permeate channels. This was because the influence of spacers on flux improvement became more evident at higher temperatures owing to higher temperature polarization. In this study, the maximum flux enhancement of approximately 43% over the empty channels was achieved using the thinnest and densest spacer with a hydrodynamic angle of 90°, adjacent to both membrane surfaces.

Thermal Performance Testing of Cryogenic Multilayer Insulation with Silk Net Spacers

Early comprehensive testing of cryogenic multilayer insulation focused on the use of silk netting as a spacer material. Silk netting was used for multiple test campaigns that were designed to provide baseline thermal performance estimates for cryogenic insulation systems. As more focus was put on larger systems, the cost of silk netting became a deterrent and most aerospace insulation firms were using Dacron (or polyester) netting spacers by the early 1970s. In the midst of the switch away from silk netting there was no attempt to understand the difference between silk and polyester netting, though it was widely believed that the silk netting provided slightly better performance. Without any better reference for thermal performance data, the silk netting performance correlations continued to be used. In order to attempt to quantify the difference between the silk netting and polyester netting, a brief test program was developed. The silk netting material was obtained from Lockheed Martin and was tested on the Cryostat-100 instrument in three different configurations, 20 layers with both single and double netting and 10 layers with single netting only. The data show agreement within 15 - 30% with the historical silk netting based correlations and show a substantial performance improvement when compared to previous testing performed using polyester netting and aluminum foil/fiberglass paper multilayer insulation. Additionally, the data further reinforce a recently observed trend that the heat flux is not directly proportional to the number of layers installed on a system.

Assessment of temperature polarization in membrane distillation channels by liquid crystal thermography

The measurement of local temperature distributions within a membrane distillation (MD) channel is a crucial step for the optimization of the channel and spacer geometry. This information allows the estimation of temperature polarization phenomena, which can dramatically influence the thermal efficiency of the process and the optimal choice of the geometric configuration (net spacer features, channel size, etc.). In the present work, a recently presented experimental technique, based on the use of thermochromic liquid crystals and digital image analysis, has been employed in order to assess the temperature polarization phenomena. The local heat transfer coefficient distribution on the membrane surface in a MD spacer-filled channel was thus assessed. The membrane has been modelled by a heat transfer polycarbonate layer. Different diamond spacer geometries were investigated, in order to highlight how the geometrical features affect both pressure drop and heat transfer in spacer-filled channels.

CFD modelling of profiled-membrane channels for reverse electrodialysis

Reverse electrodialysis (RE) is a promising technology for electric power generation from controlled mixing of two differently concentrated salt solutions, where ion-exchange membranes are adopted for the generation of ionic currents within the system. Channel geometry strongly influences fluid flow and thus crucial phenomena such as pressure drop and concentration polarization. Profiled membranes are an alternative to the more commonly adopted net spacers and offer a number of advantages: avoiding the use of non-conductive and relatively expensive materials, reducing hydraulic losses and increasing the active membrane area. In this work, Computational Fluid Dynamic simulations were performed to predict the fluid flow and mass transfer behaviour in channels with profiled membranes for RE applications. In particular, channels equipped with pillars were simulated. The influence of channel geometry on fluid flow and concentration polarization was assessed by means of a parametric analysis for different profile geometries. The unit cell approach along with periodic boundary conditions was adopted to simulate fully developed boundary conditions. Transport equations, valid also for concentrated solutions, were obtained from the rigorous Stefan–Maxwell equation along with the assumptions of binary electrolyte and local electroneutrality. Simulation results show that, in the geometries investigated here, the pumping power consumption is much lower than in a conventional net spacer and very close to that of the empty channel, while calm zones are generated by the profiles, which may accentuate polarization phenomena.

Helically microstructured spacers improve mass transfer and fractionation selectivity in ultrafiltration

The separation performance of ultrafiltration processes is strongly affected by the hydrodynamic flow conditions in the feed channel close to the membrane surface. In particular, spacer mats required to separate the membranes have a strong influence on the mass transport in the bulk liquid towards the membrane surface. Commercially available net-spacers have proven to influence mass transport advantageously depending on their geometrical structure: spacers improve mixing phenomena, diminish concentration polarization and increase mass transfer coefficients. Little is known about the effect of such spacers on the mass transfer in multi-component mixtures with respect to the separation between different solutes dissolved in a solvent.This paper investigates new 3D-printed helically microstructured spacers in comparison to state-of-the-art net spacers. In particular, we report the influence of fluid hydrodynamics on mass transport enhancement and process selectivity. Ultrafiltration experiments with well-defined Dextran solutions focus on the molecular weight cut-off and the separation quality at various operating conditions. Compared to net-spacers, the application of the micro-structured spacers resulted in significant improvements of the overall mass transfer coefficient as well as process selectivity. A higher overall performance at equal cross flow power consumption is obtained as well.

CFD analysis of the fluid flow behavior in a reverse electrodialysis stack

Abstract Salinity Gradient Power by Reverse Electrodialysis (SGP-RE) technology allows the production of electricity from the different chemical potentials of two differently concentrated salty solutions flowing in alternate channels suitably separated by selective ion exchange membranes. In SGP-RE, as well as in conventional ElectroDialysis (ED) technology, the process performance dramatically depends on the stack geometry and the internal fluid dynamics conditions: optimizing the system geometry in order to guarantee lower pressure drops (ΔP) and uniform flow rates distribution within the channels is a topic of primary importance. Although literature studies on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis and optimization of spacer-filled channels have been recently increasing in number and range of applications, only a few efforts have been focused on the analysis of the overall performance of the process. In particular, the proper attention should be devoted to verify whether the spacer geometry optimization really represents the main factor affecting the overall process performance. In the present work, realized within the EU-FP7 funded REAPower project, CFD simulations were carried out in order to assess the effects of different parameters on the global process efficiency, such as the choice of spacer material and morphology, and the optimization of feed and blowdown distribution systems. Spacer material and morphology can affect the fluid dynamics inside each channel. In particular, the appropriate choice of net spacer material can influence the slip/no-slip condition of the flow on the spacer wires, thus significantly affecting the channel fluid dynamics in terms of pressure drops. A Unit Cell approach was adopted to investigate the effect of the different choices on the fluid flow along the channel. Also, the possibility of choosing a porous medium to substitute the net spacer was theoretically addressed. Such investigation focused on the porosity and the fiber radius required to respect the process constrains of pressure drops and mechanical stability. On the other hand, the overall pressure drops of a SGP-RE or ED stack can be considered as resulting from different contributions: the pressure drop relevant to the feed distributor, the pressure drop inside the channel, and the pressure drop in the discharging collector. The choice of the optimal stack geometry is, therefore, strongly related to the need of both minimizing each of the above terms and obtaining the most uniform feed streams distribution among the stack channels. In order to investigate such aspects, simulations were performed on a simplified ideal planar stack with either 50 spacer-less or 50 spacer-filled channels. The effect of the distribution/collector channel thickness and geometry on single-channel flow rates and overall pressure drops in the system was analyzed and a significant influence of distributor layout and size on the overall process performance was found.

Effect of flow oscillations on mass transfer in electrodialysis with bipolar membrane

► Investigated the effect of oscillation on electrodialysis with bipolar membrane. ► Mass transfer resistance is mainly at the cation/anion ion exchange membranes. ► Diffusion resistance at bipolar membrane is insignificant. ► Close to 160% increase in limiting current density was achieved using oscillations. The potential of applying oscillatory flows as a method for enhancing the performance of electrodialysis with bipolar membrane has been investigated using the production of lactic acid from sodium lactate solution as an example. Up to 160% increase to the limiting current density was achieved using such intensification approach. The enhancement was found to increase with increasing the oscillation frequency and amplitude but decreased with the cell steady flow rate, likely due to flow reversal inhibition. The enhancement mechanism was mainly attributed to the increase in mass transfer rate at the cationic membrane fluid–surface interface due to the oscillatory shear and the eddies generated at the rough surface of the net spacers during flow reversals. This however, did not have any measurable effect on the mass transfer at the bipolar membrane, indicating negligible mass transfer resistance there. A correlation is developed for predicting the percentage limiting current density enhancement with an average error of 11%.

Multi-layer spacer geometries with improved mass transport

In electrodialysis desalination processes, it is desirable to operate at the highest practicable current density in order to get the maximum ion flux per unit membrane area. The operating current density is limited by concentration polarisation. In this work the development of optimal spacer configurations to decrease concentration polarisation and improve the process performance is presented. Standard non-woven and multi-layer net spacers are tested and their performance in the light of mass transfer enhancement and cross-flow power consumption is evaluated. We utilise multi-layer spacer configurations comprising a standard middle spacer with two thin outside net spacers which result in the highest mass transfer enhancement. When the diameter of the filament of the middle spacer is reduced the same mass transfer enhancement can be reached at 30 times lower cross-flow power consumption. Besides, at the same cross-flow power consumption the developed multi-layer spacer shows 20% higher mass transfer than a standard commercial non-woven net spacer.

Novel spacers for mass transfer enhancement in membrane separations

The optimal flow pattern for mass transfer enhancement in spacer-filled channels is characterized by the coexistence of transversal and longitudinal vortices in the flow close to the channel walls and minimal cross-flow power consumption in the middle of the channel. The mass transfer enhancement of spacers with modified filaments, twisted tapes and multi-layer structures, which were expected to generate these flow patterns, was investigated experimentally. The results indicate that the performance of spacers with modified filaments and twisted tapes is generally worse while the performance of spacers with multi-layer structure is generally better than that of the optimal non-woven net spacer. An optimal multi-layer spacer was designed with optimal non-woven nets in the outer layers and twisted tapes in the middle-layer. Its average Sherwood number is about 30% higher than the Sherwood number of the optimal non-woven spacer at the same cross-flow power consumption whereas the cross-flow power consumption is only about 40% of the consumption of the optimal non-woven spacer at the same Sherwood number. The Reynolds number based on the height of a spacer-filled channel varies from 40 to 500 in present study.

Experimental validation of CFD mass transfer simulations in flat channels with non-woven net spacers

The objective of the present paper is to validate experimentally the mass transfer simulations presented in a previous paper by the same authors [J. Membr. Sci. 208 (2002) 289]. In the present study, mass transfer coefficients were obtained by the limiting current method. The results from CFD simulations were successfully validated by experiments. The experiments confirm that the geometric parameters of spacers have a considerable influence on mass transfer at a given cross-flow power consumption. Comparison of the experiments with different non-woven spacers shows that there is an optimal spacer geometry, which agrees with those of the optimal spacer obtained by CFD simulations. The experiments also indicate that the woven and non-woven spacers perform equally well. Since all commercial net spacers investigated in this study had non-optimal spacer geometries, they showed lower mass transfer coefficients at a given cross-flow power consumption than the optimal spacer.

Optimization of commercial net spacers in spiral wound membrane modules

CFD simulations have been used to determine mass transfer coefficients and power consumption of commercial net spacers. The simulations show transversal and longitudinal vortices, vortex shedding and instationary flow behavior leading to the enhanced mass transfer in spacer filled-channels compared to empty channels. The results of the simulations were validated with experiments and compared with data reported in literature, showing satisfactory agreement. Furthermore, CFD simulations were used to optimize the geometry of commercial net spacers in terms of mass transfer and power consumption. The performance of these optimized spacer geometries will be used as reference for future work on the development of new high-performance spacer shapes.

Optimization of non-woven spacers by CFD and validation by experiments

CFD simulations were used to determine mass transfer coefficients and power consumptions in channels filled with non-woven net spacers. The geometric parameters of a non-woven spacer were found to have a great influence on the performance of a spacer in terms of mass transfer enhancement and power consumption. The results from CFD simulations indicate that an optimal spacer geometry exists. Mass transfer coefficients and power consumptions were determined experimentally by the limiting current method and pressure drop measurements. Close agreement between experiments and simulations was observed.

Hypervelocity impact testing of micrometeorite capture cells in conjunction with a PVDF thin-film velocity/trajectory sensor and a simple plasma velocity detector

Five different small particle capture cell designs were evaluated for their ability to capture fragments and residue from 10–200 μm diameter glass projectiles and oblong olivine crystals impacting at 1–15 km/s in sufficient quantity for chemical and isotopic analyses. Aluminum multi-foils (0.1–100 μm thick with ≈10, 000 and 1800 μ m spacing), foil covered germanium crystals, and 0.50 and 0.120 g/cm 3 Aerogels, were positioned behind either multi-film (1.4–6.0 μm thick) polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) velocity/trajectory sensor devices of a simple wire-grid plasma velocity detector. All capture cells collected significant amounts of impactor debris behind the PVDF sensors from nominal 100 μm diameter glass projectiles and olivine crystals which struck the sensor at velocities up to 6.4 km/s. At velocities >8 km/s little or no debris penetrated the second PVDF film. Results were incolsive for velocities between 6.5 and 8 km/s. Plasma detector results showed identifiable impactor residue on Al foils for velocities up to 8.7 km/s and impact tracks with apparent debris imbedded in the Aerogels for velocities up to 12.7 km/s. Maximum foil penetration of glass spheres and olivine crystals were the same, but more particulate debris was associated with olivine crystal ipacts versus glass impacts. Foil spacing beyond one particle diameter had no effect on total penetration. Aerogels are identified as a capture cell media that warrants further investigation. The Al multi-foil capture cell with 100 μm net spacers is identified as the most effective of the other designs and offers the advantages of compact structure, low secondary ejecta from impacts, and easy recovery of impactor debris for analysis.

Evacuation-induced pressure differentials in multilayer insulation systems

The pressure differentials induced across three types of multilayer insulation systems during evacuation have been measured and compared with values predicted using an idealized parallel plate geometric model. The systems tested were double-aluminized Mylar with a Tissuglas or silk net spacer and crinkled single-aluminized Mylar. Test samples were circular. The influence of purge gas type, layer density, sample diameter, and temperature was systematically investigated. The experimental approach was to measure the absolute pressure history and corresponding pressure differential induced across the insulation during evacuation. The measured pressure differentials were nondimensionalized and compared with those predicted by the parallel plate model as a function of Knudsen number. It was concluded that the parallel plate model is adequate for making engineering analyses. The influence of all parameters, except layer density, is well represented by the model. Representation of the influence of layer density is less satisfactory, but can be improved by modification of the flat plate model to allow for the more obvious practical nonidealities, such as crinkling, or the presence of a net spacer.

Mathematical model of reverse osmosis in parallel-wall channels with turbulence promoting nets

Fluid dynamics and mass transfer in a channel, made up by two membranes separated by a net spacer, are investigated. By means of some approximation, the problem is made one-dimensional, and equations are written for pressure, flow rate, mean and wall concentration in the fluid. Membrane properties and spacer characteristics are also taken into account. The resulting model is a set of differential and algebraic equations, which is easily solvable by a digital computer.