Net Farm Revenue Research Articles

Economic Assessment of Hybrid and Non-Hybrid Maize Crop in Sahiwal Division Under Changing Climate

It is a fine admissible verity all over the world that the changing climate exerts influence on all the kinds of survivals. As an agricultural based economy Pakistan rely on well-being of agriculture and it makes huge contribution in the gross domestic product (GDP) of Pakistan. Agriculture totally nature based and it is straight exaggerated by the exchange behavior of different climatic variables i.e. humidity, rainfall as well as temperature. Minor alter in one of these variables can cause extreme alter in the production of crops and the country’s economy damaged in the result of yield loss. This study will be focused on climate changing impact on hybrid as well as non- hybrid maize crop within Sahiwal division, in the province of Punjab, Pakistan. Sahiwal division is the well-known agricultural production location and on the other side, it is very sensitive to climate change. That is the reason behind the study of the economic assessment of hybrid and non-hybrid maize crop under the climate change in Sahiwal division. With the help of arranged set of questions, check the impact of crop production on net farm revenue and Ricardian analysis operated to quantify the supposed impact due to changing climate. After estimating net farm revenue, it is a regressed against climate, soil and socio-economic variables. Study helps out in assessing the climate changing impact on hybrid as well as non-hybrid maize crop and plus suggesting adoption practices to farmers and thus giving reasonable policy support in the end.

Voluntary sustainability standards and farmer welfare: The pathways to success?

Whether Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) - such as Fairtrade, GlobalGAP or Organic - may contribute to economic sustainability has been subject to vigorous debate over the past decades. To analyze the welfare effects of VSS for family farms, previous studies rely on single equation models which enable analyzing if (some) VSS affect welfare, but not how (some) VSS affect welfare – or not. Hence, little is known about the mechanisms and the relative importance of these different mechanisms by which VSS contribute to farmer welfare. In this paper, we analyze the channel of effects through which VSS affect net farm revenue, as a proxy of farmer welfare, of family farms in Peru. We use nationwide data from Peru’s National Agricultural Survey covering five years, multiple agricultural commodities, and multiple VSS. We apply a multiple mediation model which allows to disentangle the main revenue-determining mechanisms and to compare their relative importance. We find that prices (and not yields) are the main channel through which VSS affect net farm revenue. However, higher prices cannot offset higher production costs, resulting in zero net revenue gains. We do not find an effect through yields, but identify a large potential effect on net farm revenue. We find heterogeneity in the effects by standard and crop, with crops certified to standards that apply a system of quality-based price differentiation having the largest impact on net farm revenue through a price effect. From a policy perspective, we highlight potential improvements in VSS design to effectively improve economic sustainability.

Effectiveness of Residue and Tillage Management on Runoff Pollutant Reduction from Agricultural Areas.

Reduced tillage management conservation practices (No-till and Reduced-till) are widely adopted in agriculture; however, understanding their overall effectiveness for water quality protection is challenging. A meta-analysis was conducted to understand and quantify the effectiveness of residue and tillage management on runoff, sediment, and nutrient losses from agricultural fields. Annual runoff and the associated sediment, and nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) loads were compiled from 60 peer reviewed research articles published across the United States and Canada. A total of 1575 site-years of data were categorized into tillage (<30% surface cover), no-tillage (<30% surface cover), tillage with residue (>30% surface cover), no-tillage with residue (>30% surface cover), and pasture management. No-tillage, no-tillage-residue, and tillage-residue managements were evaluated for their effectiveness in reducing runoff, nutrients, and sediment loads compared to tillage. Synthesized and surveyed corn yield data were used to evaluate the economic cost effectiveness of no-tillage-residue management with respect to tillage. Across the site years (1968-2019) studied, median runoff depth for no-tillage and no-tillage-residue were 84% and 70% greater than tillage and tillage-residue management, respectively. No-tillage-residue management had up to 86% less sediment losses than tillage systems, on average, for both >30% and <30% surface cover. No-tillage-residue management was most effective, with a positive performance effectiveness of 65% to 90% in controlling sediments, particulate, and total nutrient losses in runoff compared to tillage. Cost effectiveness analysis revealed the benefits of no-tillage-residue management in reducing nutrient loads and increasing net-farm revenue by avoiding tillage operational costs. Except for dissolved phosphorus, no-tillage-residue management cost effectiveness for sediments and nutrient loads ranged from negative $6 to negative $102 per every Mg or kg of load reduction, indicating it had both economic and environmental benefits compared to tillage management. Overall, these results indicate that over the long-term, no-tillage and tillage, combined with greater than 30% residue cover, can effectively reduce sediment and nutrient losses. This work highlights the importance of crop residues on the soil surface to reduce runoff losses, even in no-tillage systems.

Pumps, prosperity and household power: Experimental evidence on irrigation pumps and smallholder farmers in Kenya

Irrigation is a potentially effective technology to improve agricultural incomes in Sub-Saharan Africa, and hand powered irrigation pumps have received significant interest and investment as a solution appropriate to small-scale farmers in this context. This paper describes the results of an RCT impact evaluation of household irrigation pumps in Kenya, where we randomly allocated free pumps to the female head of household via public lotteries. After two years farmers are still making significant use of their pumps and allocating increased time to irrigated agriculture. We find that pumps increase net farm revenue by approximately 13% of the control mean, and pay for themselves within three years. In addition, we find that farmers with irrigation pumps spent less time on off-farm economic activity. Finally, we find that female decisionmaking power increased and domestic violence decreased among treatment households.

Production impacts of climate change on agricultural livelihoods among smallholder panel households across Ethiopia

This study analyzes the production impacts of climate change on smallholder agricultural households across Ethiopia. Hypothesizing that climate change affects agricultural livelihoods mainly through productive and distributive effects, this article examines an integrated farm [crop, livestock, mixed] production impacts overtime. Methodically, the comprehensive Ethiopian socioeconomic survey (ESS] panel data, and nation-wide observatory 60-years climate data- precipitation and temperature [1960-2019] were merged to form a joint panel database; then analyzed using Ricardian panel model with random effects regression. Objectively, factor productivity, the rate of convergence, the historical, real, and seasonal climate impacts were investigated against net-agricultural return overtime. The applied panel model augments both the temporal, spatial, and individual effects and yields more efficient and consistent estimates than the cross-sectional and time series models. The results revealed that CC poses net-negative, increasing and significant impacts on factor elasticity, percapita farm output, and net-farm revenue [NFR] due to diminishing marginal returns; the progressive temporal impacts; regressive duration impacts; divergence effects on the growth of net-farm return; and mixed regional, farm, and HH impacts. Therefore, introducing institutionalized sustainable livelihoods framework [green institutions, finance, education, training, research, inputs, subsidy, insurance, market] in agricultural production system would enhance sustainable production and improved welfare among smallholder households even under changing climate.

Economic Impact of Climate Change on Food Crop Production using Ricardina Approach: A Case of Kellem Wollega Zone, Ethiopia

Background: Historical records and increased scientific consensus provide strong evidence that the global climate is changing. Future climate change would lead to an increase in climate variability and the frequency and intensity of extreme events. Agriculture that is dependent on climate conditions is inherently sensitive to climate changes. Today’s world agriculture has gone through challenges from population growth and has adapted to changing economic conditions, technology and resource availabilities. But uncertainty remains concerning the ability of agricultural systems to adapt to climate change. Thus, climate change adaptation of the essence for a resilient food crop production system requires economic transformation by arrangement of institutional and technology. Methods: This study uses the Ricardian model to examine the economic impact of climate change on agriculture in Kellem Wollega Zone, Ethiopia. The net farm revenue is regressed against climate variable (temperature and precipitation), soil and socio-economic variables to help determine the factors that influence variability in net farm revenues. The study was based on the data from a survey of 400 smallholder farming households interviewed across the zone. Result: The Ricardian model analysis shows the coefficients of summer, autumn and winter temperature are positive whereas the coefficient of spring temperature is negative. Regarding the precipitation, the coefficients of summer and spring precipitation are positive while coefficients of autumn and winter precipitation are negative. The marginal impact analysis results show an increase in summer and spring temperatures has mostly negative effects on net farm revenues implying that further temperature increases would be harmful to agricultural activities while increases in autumn temperatures increase net farm revenues in the study area. The summer and spring precipitation would increase the net farm revenue but the autumn precipitation reduces the farm revenue. The elasticity results show that net farm revenues are highly sensitive to changes in climate and the elasticity is relatively high for both summer temperature and precipitation. The impacts of climate change under the three special Reports on Emission Scenarios, (Canadian General Circulation Model, Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and Parallel Climate Model) predicted that by 2100 net farm revenues would decrease across all farms per hectare by US$ 942.83, US$ 1048.16 and US$ 1024.32 respectively. The finding suggests there is a great need for the concerned bodies to provide up-to-date information about climate change and rainfall patterns in the forthcoming season so that the farmers make informed decisions and develop adaptation strategies.

Cashew contract farming in Ghana: implications on farm performance and household welfare

PurposeEfforts to reduce farmers' market risks and improve buyers' access to farm commodities have encouraged contract farming (CF) in Ghana's cashew sector in recent years. Consequently, the existence of CF shows that farmers who use it may be benefiting from it, as it is their economic responsibility to decide how to sell agricultural products. However, the magnitudes of these benefits or otherwise have been inadequately explored. This paper aims to empirically estimate the impact of CF on farm performance and welfare of smallholder cashew farmers.Design/methodology/approachThe study used probit-two-stage least square (probit-2sls) as a primary estimator to account for self-selection bias and endogeneity that could arise from both observed and unobserved heterogeneities among farming households to estimate the causal effects of CF on farm performance and household welfare.FindingsThe results indicated that participation in CF contribute significantly to the gains in farm performance (price margins, yields and net farm revenue) and welfare (consumption expenditure per capita), and that the non-participants of CF would have benefited substantially if they had participated. An analysis of the farm size disaggregated into small, medium and large with regards to the outcome variables produces mixed results.Research limitations/implicationsIt can be concluded that participating in CF enhances farm performance and household welfare.Originality/valueWhile many other studies do not account for changes in farm performance and welfare due to differences in farm size or other observed factors, this study fills a crucial void.

Impact of climate adaptation strategies on the net farm revenue of underutilised indigenous vegetables’ (UIVs) production in Southwest Nigeria

This paper examined the impact of climate adaptation strategies employed by Underutilised Indigenous Vegetables (UIVs) farmers on UIVs’ net revenue of adopters and non-adopters of adaptation strategy in Southwest Nigeria. This was with a view to determine the factors that determined UIVs net revenue in the study area. Both quantitative and qualitative primary household data from 191 UIVs producers, with secondary climate data from Nigeria Meteorological agency were used. An efficient endogenous switching regression model (ESRM) was used to estimate the effect of climate change adaptation strategy on UIVs net revenue. The results show that farmers’ perception of climate change showed a high temperature and a high variability in rainfall pattern. The adaptation strategies mostly employed by the UIVs farmers is cultivating along river banks (98%) while the least was agroforestry and perennial plantation (4%). Meanwhile, all the farmers who adopted farmers that adopted Agroforestry and perennial plantation and Agricultural good practices did not experience loss in UIVs production. The factors that determined the likelihood of adopting climate adaptation strategy include years of experience (0.0335, p<0.1) in UIVs production, access to climate information (0.7895, p<0.1) and agro ecological zone (0.7889, p<0.1). Further, factors that determine the net revenue from UIVs for adopters were access to information on climate change 0.2428, p<0.1), off-farm income (0.6526, p<0.01), precipitation (0.0045, p<0.1), precipitation square (0.−0.00002, p<0.1) and Ondo location (0.4470, p<0.05). Age (0.1261, p<0.1), agro ecological zone (4.2682, p<0.1), off-farm income (−1.1765, p<0.05) and precipitation square (0.0001, p<0.01) determined the UIVs revenue for non-adopters. The promotion of UIVs should therefore be advocated by the government and non-government agencies since high temperature does not have significant effect on its revenue. Also, provision of relevant information on climate change is essential for farmers as this will enhance farmers’ likelihood of adopting appropriate climate change adaptation strategy considering the type of crop they cultivate and the peculiarity of their agro ecological zones. Also, vegetables’ farmers are encouraged to engage in agroforestry and perennial plantation. • Underutilised Indigenous Vegetables for climate change mitigation. • Factors that determined adoption of climate adaptation strategies; climate change information. • Adoption of adaptation strategies impacts farmers’ net revenue.

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE NET REVENUE OF MAJOR CROP GROWING FARMERS IN PAKISTAN: A RICARDIAN APPROACH

Climate change has severely affected the crops’ productivity during the last few decades across the agrarian economies of the world, thereby resulting in a considerable loss per farmer in the yearly net revenue. Pakistan’s agriculture is sensitive to warming and it experienced an adverse effect in the net farm revenue (NFR). This study primarily predicts the adverse climate effects and estimates the NFR of the farmers of five major crops (wheat, rice, cotton, sugarcane and maize) in two different seasons, winter (Rabbi) and summer (Kharif), in Pakistan. This study is based upon the secondary cross-sectional data [Household Integrated Economic Survey of Pakistan (HIES), 2015–2016] along with the time series data regarding climatic variables from 1981 to 2016. A well-established Ricardian approach has been employed to test the association between net revenue of the farmer and climatic variability. Results of overall study conclude that increases in average summer (winter) temperature and average winter (summer) rainfall have adverse (favorable) impacts on all of the crops’ productivity during both seasons, winter (Rabbi) and summer (Kharif), in Pakistan, thus leading to a decline (an increase) in NFR. Future increases in temperature will be harmful and may lead to significant loss in the revenue amount. The analysis of adaptation techniques exhibits beneficial impacts on the NFR and it is concluded that adaptations are helpful tool for the farmers to minimize revenue loss.

Assessment of the impacts of climate change and variability on water resources and use, food security, and economic welfare in Iran

Climate change influences the agricultural sector by reducing available water resources, thereby influencing income, consumer and producer surplus, and crop prices. So, it is necessary to have a comprehensive integrated method to measure the effects of these changes on natural resources and social conditions. The present study aims to use the positive mathematical programming method to discover the trend and conditions of groundwater resources, agricultural water use, food security, and economic welfare of the agricultural sector in Iran. To this end, data for the period 2000–2015 was used under four different scenarios of normal climate change, climate change, climate variability, and concurrent climate change The results showed that the mean agricultural water use will amount to 35,103.6, 26,533.8, 35,216, and 26,510.7 million m3 and the mean decline in the reserves of aquifers will amount to 4422.22, 11,165.6, 4438.25, and 11,267.4 million m3 under the scenarios, respectively. With respect to food security, the net farm revenue will be 314,560, 248,753, 315,427, and 248,574 billion IRR, respectively. The mean crop price per ton will reach 905.3, 1141.8, 904, and 1142.8 million IRR, respectively. The mean consumer surplus will be 172,107.7, 166,450, 172,024, and 166,403 billion IRR and the mean producer surplus will be 419,959.2, 395,380, 419,751, and 395,204 billion IRR, respectively. Based on the results, to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change on different studied aspects, it is necessary to change policymaking in the water and agricultural sectors, especially regarding the shift from traditional agricultural water allocation to its market-based allocation and to change planting pattern.

The link between production efficiency and opportunity cost of protecting environment in TR83 region, Turkey.

Many nations have tended to transform their traditional growth paradigm to green growth policy paradigm to ensure environmentally sustainable development. Governments, therefore, have developed and implemented environmental protection programs to ensure environmentally sustainable development. For accelerating the transformation to green production techniques and technologies, the study aims (i) to calculate the opportunity cost of protecting environment, (ii) to estimate the production efficiency of farms, and (iii) to determine the impact of opportunity cost of protecting environment on the production efficiency in TR83 region in Turkey. Farm-level research data have been collected from totally 361 farms (334 farms participated in the environmental protection programs (EFALP) and 27 conventional farms) by using a well-structured questionnaire during the production year of 2016-2017. Minimization of total absolute deviation (MOTAD) programming model as a linearized version of QP was used to elicit the farm plans under both condition of protecting environmental and conventional farming condition. When estimating the technical, allocative, and economic efficiencies, the net farm revenue under prevailing conditions, potential net farm revenue, and optimum farm revenue were used. The net revenue difference between EFALP farm and conventional farm was attributed to the opportunity cost of protecting the environment. The impact of the opportunity cost of protecting the environment on production efficiency was explored by using two-limit Tobit model. Research results show that the opportunity cost of environmental protection is 3060 TRY per hectare and varied spatially in the research area. Government environmental support has not compensated the farmers' revenue sacrifice completely. The technical efficiency scores of EFALP farms and conventional farms are 0.77 and 0.75, while that of allocative efficiency are 0.83 and 0.86, respectively. The economic efficiency scores of the EFALP farms and conventional farms are 0.62 and 0.63, respectively. Research results further indicate that the opportunity cost of protecting the environment can be said to have a negative impact on the economic efficiency. The variables of labor and farmland have been negatively affected the economic efficiency, while the effects of operating capital, age of operators, and family size seem positive. The study suggests creating regulatory framework providing opportunity to adjust government environmental support spatially based on the farm-level opportunity cost of protecting environment. Government practices should be developed by policymakers to supervise and control the farms participated in the environmental protection programs. Eliminating the conventional decision-making approach and replacing with environmental trade-off analysis-based decision-making techniques, involving stakeholders during the designing environmental policy, and sharing outputs of environmental trade-off analysis may increase the success of the environmental policy and programs. In addition, bringing away the goal mismatch of scientist and users by establishing bridge in between knowledge and action may increase the effectiveness of environmental protection programs.

Economic impact of climate change on cocoa production among South-Western states, Nigeria: Results from ricardian analysis

The study was carried out to determine the economic impact of climate change on cocoa producing states in south western states, Nigeria using Ricardian analytical procedure. The specific objectives were to: analyze the economic impact of climate change on cocoa production, estimate the marginal impact of climate change on net cocoa farm revenue in the areas of study, find out whether there is a significant mean difference in climatic variables among the cocoa producing states in the south-west Nigeria and make useful recommendations based on findings. Data were sourced from CBN bulletin, Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Nigeria Meteorological Agency (NIMET), spanning 1981 - 2015. Model specification was based on Ordinary Least Square (OLS) multiple regression technique using Ricardian framework on net revenue. Data obtained were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Results show that 11, 47 and 77% of the variations in net revenue from cocoa production were explained by rainfall and temperature for Oyo, Ondo and Osun states respectively. The study also affirms that the climatic (rainfall and temperature) and non climatic (area, producer price, yield and technology) variables accounts for 98%, 97% and 96% of the variations in net revenue per hectare of cocoa production respectively in Oyo, Ondo and Osun states. The study further showed that there was a significant difference in climate change over time across the cocoa producing states at 1% level of probability. The study indicated that climatic changes culminated in economic losses/benefits of about ₦27.63million (₦3.50million), ₦5.6million (₦14.90million) and ₦1.3million (₦5.8million) respectively across the states amidst varying marginal economic losses of ₦1billion (Ondo) and benefits of ₦10.08 and ₦270.48million (Oyo and Osun States) in the study area. Based on these, it was concluded that climatic changes over time are not the only parameters that accounted for economic losses and benefits, other factors also contributed. It was recommended that low-yielding cocoa trees, which have exceeded optimum production ages be replaced with the high-yielding ones alongside farmers should cultivate cocoa varieties that are tolerant to climate change in the area of consideration, ab initio.Keywords: Climate change, Cocoa, Ricardian, Production, Economic impact.

Ricardian analysis of climate change–agriculture linkages in Pakistan

ABSTRACTClimate change has now become a universal truth. Its impact on agriculture is a growing concern in the world today. Being third most vulnerable country to climate change, agrarian economy of Pakistan seems to be at stake. The increasing threat of global warming is also on the way. To this end, a pioneering research work was conducted to trace climate change–agriculture linkages through Ricardian regression by employing gridded data sets of climatic variables. Economic valuation as articulated through spatial autoregressive specification revealed that climate change has significantly decreased Net Farm Revenues (NFRs) in irrigated and rain-fed regions. However, farmers in the irrigated region were found to be the acute sufferer of climate change which implicitly shows the imbalance in the stock of irrigation water. Estimated threshold levels for mean temperature and diurnal temperature were quantified to be 19.17°C and 13.88°C. Results indicate that on an overall basis, every increase in mean temperature significantly decreased NFRs per hectare by Rs. 8556 (US $70). But in the irrigated region, every increase in mean temperature significantly decreased NFRs per hectare by Rs 30,705 (US $256). The nonsignificant decrease in the rain-fed region could not be proved statistically. It was further estimated that increase in diurnal temperature significantly reduced NFRs by Rs. 2401 (US $20) in Pakistan, Rs. 9635 (US $80) in the irrigated region and Rs. 8834 (US $74) in the rain-fed region. The study suggested a mixed farming system as an adaptation measure in all kinds of settings while cooperative farming was identified for the rain-fed region. Similarly, updated agriculture services through various capacity building programmes particularly about climate resilient researches and rural literacy programmes may help in developing sustainable agriculture in Pakistan.

A Ricardian valuation of the impact of climate change on Nigerian cocoa production

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the relative importance of climate normals (average long-term temperature and precipitation) in explaining net farm revenue per hectare (NRh) for supplementary irrigated and rainfed cocoa farms in Nigeria.Design/methodology/approachNRh was estimated for 280 cocoa farmers sampled across seven Nigerian states. It was regressed on climate, household socio-economic characteristics and other control variables by using a Ricardian analytical framework. Marginal calculations were used to isolate the effects of climate change (CC) on cocoa farm revenues under supplementary irrigated and rainfed conditions. Future impacts of CC were simulated using Six CORDEX regional climate model (RCM) ensemble between 2036-2065 and 2071-2100.FindingsResults indicate high sensitivity of NRh to Nigerian climate normals depending on whether farms use supplementary irrigation. Average annual temperature increases and precipitation decreases are associated with NRh losses for rainfed farms and gains for supplementary irrigated cocoa farms. Projections of future CC impacts suggest a wide range of NRh outcomes on supplementary irrigated and rainfed farm revenues, demonstrating the importance of irrigation as an effective adaptation strategy in Nigeria.Originality/valueThis paper uses novel data sets for simulating future CC impacts on land values in Nigeria. CORDEX data constitute the most comprehensive RCMs projections available for Africa.

Impact of access to credit on farm income: policy implications for rural agricultural development in Lesotho

ABSTRACTIn this era of rapidly increasing food demand, a sustainable food supply is required to meet such demand. This suggests that capital investment through adequate access to credit is needed to develop the agricultural sector in developing countries including Lesotho. Therefore, this paper examined farmers’ access to credit and its impact on farm income using a three-stage model, namely: Probit, Tobit, and propensity score matching. The study was conducted in Lesotho with a sample size of 100 farmers. The empirical results reveal that access to credit increases net farm revenues by US$116.608 to US$136.894. Furthermore, savings, scale of production, membership of farmer associations and financial record keeping exert significant positive effects on access to credit, while higher interest rates reduce farmers’ likelihood of securing credit from a financial institution. We conclude that adequate access to credit is necessary to promote a sustainable agricultural development and the livelihoods of rural farmers in Africa.

Profitability of Alternative Management Practices in a Wheat–Soybean, Double‐Crop Production System in Arkansas

Core Ideas Wheat and soybean yields were estimated using combinations of management practices. The estimated yields were used to simulate profitability differences by combination. Six combinations were 7 to 118% more profitable than the traditional combination. Growing concerns about the sustainability of soil and water resources in the highly agriculturally productive lower Mississippi River Valley, particularly in the Delta region of eastern Arkansas, require the investigation of traditional and alternative agricultural management practices and their comparative long‐term profitability. Therefore, this study used a simple, but robust, two‐step novel procedure, econometrics and simulation, to evaluate the long‐term effects of a combination of management practices. It consisted of tillage (conventional tillage [CT] or no‐tillage [NT]), wheat residue burning (burn [B] or no burn [NB]), wheat‐residue level (low [L] and high [H] achieved with differential N fertilization), and irrigation (irrigated [I] or non‐ irrigated [NI]), on net farm revenue in a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) –soybean (Glycine max L. [Merr.]), double‐crop production system in the region. Results from the last 10 yr of a 15‐yr‐long field study on a silt‐loam soil showed that the alternative combinations of NT–B–H–I, NT–NB–L–I, NT–B–L–I, CT–B–L–I, NT–NB–H–I, and NT–B–H–NI were 7 to 118% more profitable than the traditional set of management practices (CT–B–H–I) for soybean production. Results suggest that leaving wheat residue on the soil surface unburned followed by NT soybean production can be equally to more profitable for producers, while at the same time providing extra benefits to improve the long‐term sustainability of soil resources. The NT–B–H–NI can conserve both soil and water.

Economic Impacts of Multiple Agro-Environmental Policies on New Zealand Land Use

This paper investigates the implications of policy on farm income, land use, and the environment when New Zealand landowners face multiple environmental constraints. It also looks at the interaction between climate and nutrient reduction policy and the extent to which one policy can be used to meet the other’s objectives. We use a non-linear, partial equilibrium mathematical programming model of New Zealand land use to assess the economic impacts of climate and water policies at the New Zealand territorial authority level. The spatially explicit agro-environmental economic model estimates changes in land use, agricultural output, land management, and environmental impacts. The policies investigated include a range of carbon prices on land-based emissions ($0–30/tCO $$_{2\mathrm{e}}$$ ) as well a range of prices on nitrogen leaching from diffuse sources ($0–30/kgN). We estimate that implementing stand-alone greenhouse gas and nutrient emissions reduction policies for the agricultural and forestry sectors will create environmental benefits outside the scope of the policy. However, not all environmental outputs improve, and net farm revenue declines by between 0 and 11%. Simultaneously implementing the two policies results in the desired goals of reductions in nitrogen and greenhouse gas emissions with a marginal economic burden on landowners (i.e. 1–2% additional loss in farm profit relative to a stand-alone policy).

Optimal Allocation of Resources for Increasing Farm Revenue under Hydrological Uncertainty

The formulation and application of two optimization models is presented in this study. The models were used to maximize the net farm revenue of an irrigated area located in northwest India by optimally allocating the available water and land resources. In order to moderate the rising water table issues, a ground water component was introduced in the model, while still ensuring optimal resources allocation. Results of the model indicates a reduction in barley, gram, mustard, and rice production area while at the same time an increase in sugarcane, millets, wheat, and cotton cultivation areas under optimal conditions. The ground water exploitation has increased in the model allocation, which consecutively moderated the rising water table problems. The model allocations has resulted in more than 31 % increase in net farm revenue. The proposed models can be employed as a dependable tool for making the decisions at local and regional levels and are capable of solving the rising water table issues of irrigated areas. The formulations proposed in this study are simple and can be employed anywhere for capitalizing on the farm revenue by moderating the water resources problems. The model constraints, though, be different considering the quality and quantity aspects of different water sources.

Yield, water use efficiency and economic analysis of energy sorghum in South Texas

Yields, water use efficiency and economic returns (net farm revenues) of biomass sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] were investigated over two years (2012 and 2014) under limited water resource conditions. Energy sorghum was grown under four water supply regimes: rain-fed (or dry-land, level 1), 50% (level 2), 75% (level 3) and 100% (level 4) of crop evapotranspiration rates (% ETc). Biomass yields ranged from 5.8 to 16.6 Mg ha−1 (dry weight) after 126 days of growth. Average water use efficiencies ranged from 3.95 kg m−3 to 23.4 kg m−3. Net return was approximately 410 $ ha−1 with water depths above 400 ha-mm. These results suggest that it is possible to obtain more than 60 Mg ha−1 of sorghum biomass (wet basis) with at least 425 mm of water. While biomass yield under irrigation was greater than rain-fed conditions, there were no significant differences among irrigation treatments. Biomass chemical composition did not differ significantly among water treatments suggesting that biofuel quality would not be affected by water deficits.

WIC fruit and vegetable vouchers: Small farms face barriers in supplying produce

By October 2009, all 50 states had implemented a revised WIC program with produce vouchers for millions of eligible families. USDA economists had projected the vouchers would raise net farm revenues by $76 million. In response to such a significant policy change and market opportunity, a UC Agriculture and Natural Resources Cooperative Extension team of researchers conducted a pilot project to test the ability of small farms to market produce locally to WIC-authorized stores known as A-50 vendors. They also interviewed store owners and produce distributors to determine how produce was entering the supply chain to the A-50 vendors. The pilot project was not successful in helping small growers enter the supply chain. The analysis indicates that it is improbable that small farms will be selling much produce to A-50 vendors; growers’ price expectations are unlikely to be met since these vendors are competing with large retailers. And although the vouchers can be redeemed at farmers markets, very few are because the process is cumbersome for growers and shoppers.