Neovascularization In Oxygen-induced Retinopathy Mice Research Articles

GBP2 inhibits pathological angiogenesis in the retina via the AKT/mTOR/VEGFA axis

Pathological retinal angiogenesis is not only the hallmark of retinopathies, but also a major cause of blindness. Guanylate binding protein 2 (GBP2) has been reported to be associated with retinal diseases such as diabetic retinopathy and hypoxic retinopathy. However, GBP2-mediated pathological retinal angiogenesis remains largely unknown. The present study aimed to investigate the role of GBP2 in pathological retinal angiogenesis and its underlying molecular mechanism. In this study, we established oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) mice model for in vivo study and hypoxia-induced angiogenesis in ARPE-19 cells for in vitro study. We demonstrated that GBP2 expression was markedly downregulated in the retina of mice with OIR and ARPE-19 cells treated with hypoxia, which was associated with pathological retinal angiogenesis. The regulatory mechanism of GBP2 in ARPE-19 cells was studied by GBP2 silencing and overexpression. The regulatory mechanism of GBP2 in the retina was investigated by overexpressing GBP2 in the retina of OIR mice. Mechanistically, GBP2 downregulated the expression and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA) in ARPE-19 cells and retina of OIR mice. Interestingly, overexpression of GBP2 significantly inhibited neovascularization in OIR mice, conditioned medium of GBP2 overexpressing ARPE-19 cells inhibited angiogenesis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Furthermore, we confirmed that GBP2 downregulated VEGFA expression and angiogenesis by inhibiting the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Taken together, we concluded that GBP2 inhibited pathological retinal angiogenesis via the AKT/mTOR/VEGFA axis, thereby suggesting that GBP2 may be a therapeutic target for pathological retinal angiogenesis.

MicroRNA-124-3p Attenuated Retinal Neovascularization in Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy Mice by Inhibiting the Dysfunction of Retinal Neuroglial Cells through STAT3 Pathway.

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a non-coding RNA that can regulate the expression of many target genes, and it is widely involved in various important physiological activities. MiR-124-3p was found to associate with the normal development of retinal vessels in our previous study, but the mechanism of its anti-angiogenic effect on pathological retinal neovascularization still needed to be explored. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect and mechanism of miR-124-3p on retinal neovascularization in mice with oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). Here, we found that intravitreal injection of miR-124-3p agomir attenuated pathological retinal neovascularization in OIR mice. Moreover, miR-124-3p preserved the astrocytic template, inhibited reactive gliosis, and reduced the inflammatory response as well as necroptosis. Furthermore, miR-124-3p inhibited the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) pathway and decreased the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and vascular endothelial growth factor. Taken together, our results revealed that miR-124-3p inhibited retinal neovascularization and neuroglial dysfunction by targeting STAT3 in OIR mice.

Irisin Attenuates Pathological Neovascularization in Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy Mice.

PurposeAbnormal angiogenesis is a defining feature in a couple of ocular neovascular diseases. The application of anti-VEGFA therapy has achieved certain benefits in the clinic, accompanying side effects and poor responsiveness in many patients. The present study investigated the role of irisin in retinal neovascularization.MethodsWestern blot and quantitative PCR were used to determine irisin expression in the oxygen-induced retinopathy mice model. The pathological angiogenesis and inflammation index were examined after irisin administration. Primary retinal astrocytes were cultured and analyzed for VEGFA expression in vitro. Astrocyte-conditioned medium was collected for transwell assay and tube formation assay in human microvascular endothelial cells-1.ResultsIrisin was downregulated in the oxygen-induced retinopathy mice retinae. Additional irisin attenuated pathological angiogenesis, inflammation, and apoptosis in vivo. In vitro, irisin decreased astrocyte VEGFA production, and the conditioned medium suppressed human microvascular endothelial cells-1 migration. Last, irisin inhibited hypoxia-inducible factor-2α, nuclear factor-κB, and pNF-κB (Phospho-Nuclear Factor-κB) expression.ConclusionsIrisin mitigates retinal pathological angiogenesis. Chinese

Safety and Efficacy of Systemic Anti-Scg3 Therapy to Treat Oxygen-Induced Retinopathy.

To circumvent possible systemic side effects, anti-angiogenic drugs targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) for ocular neovascular diseases in adults are approved only for intravitreal administration. However, intravitreal injection itself can elicit injection-related adverse effects, and premature eyes of infants with retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) may be particularly susceptible to intravitreal injection. Therefore, an unmet clinical need is to develop safe systemic anti-angiogenic therapies for ROP. We recently reported that secretogranin III (Scg3) is a disease-restricted angiogenic factor and that systemic anti-Scg3 mAb alleviates ROP in animal models with minimal side effects on developing eyes and organs. The aim of this study is to investigate the safety and efficacy of a humanized anti-Scg3 antibody via systemic administration. We analyzed the safety and efficacy of a humanized anti-Scg3 antibody Fab fragment (hFab) delivered by intraperitoneal injection in oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) mice, a surrogate model of ROP. The results showed that systemic anti-Scg3 hFab effectively alleviated pathological retinal neovascularization in OIR mice with similar efficacy to the anti-VEGF drug aflibercept. Systemic aflibercept conferred significant adverse side effects in neonatal mice, including reduced body weight, abnormalities in retinal and renal development, and retarded physiological neovascularization, whereas systemic anti-Scg3 hFab elicited no such side effects. The findings suggest that systemic anti-Scg3 hFab is a safe and effective therapy for OIR and support further development for ROP treatment.

Maternally expressed gene 3 regulates retinal neovascularization in retinopathy of prematurity.

The mouse model of oxygen induced retinopathy is suitable for the study of various retinal neovascularization diseases, including retinopathy of prematurity. The maternally expressed gene 3 (MEG3) has been demonstrated to have an inhibitory effect on diabetic retinopathy. In this study, we investigated the role of MEG3 overexpression in oxygen-induced retinopathy in mice. The results showed that MEG3 overexpression effectively inhibited the production of retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice. It acts by down-regulating the expression of phosphoinositide 3-kinase, serine/threonine kinase, and vascular endothelial growth factor and pro-inflammatory factors. MEG3 overexpression lentivirus has a future as a new method for the clinical treatment of retinopathy of prematurity. The animal experiments were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, China (approval No. 2016PS074K) on February 25, 2016.

HIF-1α and HIF-2α redundantly promote retinal neovascularization in patients with ischemic retinal disease.

Therapies targeting VEGF have proven only modestly effective for the treatment of proliferative sickle cell retinopathy (PSR), the leading cause of blindness in patients with sickle cell disease. Here, we shift our attention upstream from the genes that promote retinal neovascularization (NV) to the transcription factors that regulate their expression. We demonstrated increased expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α in the ischemic inner retina of PSR eyes. Although both HIFs participated in promoting VEGF expression by hypoxic retinal Müller cells, HIF-1 alone was sufficient to promote retinal NV in mice, suggesting that therapies targeting only HIF-2 would not be adequate to prevent PSR. Nonetheless, administration of a HIF-2-specific inhibitor currently in clinical trials (PT2385) inhibited NV in the oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) mouse model. To unravel these discordant observations, we examined the expression of HIFs in OIR mice and demonstrated rapid but transient accumulation of HIF-1α but delayed and sustained accumulation of HIF-2α; simultaneous expression of HIF-1α and HIF-2α was not observed. Staggered HIF expression was corroborated in hypoxic adult mouse retinal explants but not in human retinal organoids, suggesting that this phenomenon may be unique to mice. Using pharmacological inhibition or an in vivo nanoparticle-mediated RNAi approach, we demonstrated that inhibiting either HIF was effective for preventing NV in OIR mice. Collectively, these results explain why inhibition of either HIF-1α or HIF-2α is equally effective for preventing retinal NV in mice but suggest that therapies targeting both HIFs will be necessary to prevent NV in patients with PSR.

A novel method for visualizing and tracking endogenous mRNA in a specific cell population in pathological neovascularization

Diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity and retinal vein occlusion are potentially blinding conditions largely due to their respective neovascular components. The development of real-time in vivo molecular imaging methods, to assess levels of retinal neovascularization (NV), would greatly benefit patients afflicted with these conditions. mRNA hybridization techniques offer a potential method to image retinal NV. The success of these techniques hinges on the selection of a target mRNA whose tissue levels and spatial expression patterns correlate closely with disease burden. Using a model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR), we previously observed dramatic increases in retinal endoglin that localized to neovascular structures (NV), directly correlating with levels of neovascular pathology. Based on these findings, we have investigated Endoglin mRNA as a potential marker for imaging retinal NV in OIR mice. Also of critical importance, is the application of innovative technologies capable of detecting mRNAs in living systems with high sensitivity and specificity. To detect and visualize endoglin mRNA in OIR mice, we have designed and synthesized a novel imaging probe composed of short-hairpin anti-sense (AS) endoglin RNA coupled to a fluorophore and black hole quencher (AS-Eng shRNA). This assembly allows highly sensitive fluorescence emission upon hybridization of the AS-Eng shRNA to cellular endoglin mRNA. The AS-Eng shRNA is further conjugated to a diacyl-lipid (AS-Eng shRNA–lipid referred to as probe). The lipid moiety binds to serum albumin facilitating enhanced systemic circulation of the probe. OIR mice received intraperitoneal injections of AS-Eng shRNA–lipid. Ex vivo imaging of their retinas revealed specific endoglin mRNA dependent fluorescence superimposed on neovascular structures. Room air mice receiving AS-Eng shRNA–lipid and OIR mice receiving a non-sense control probe showed little fluorescence activity. In addition, we found that cells in neovascular lesions labelled with endoglin mRNA dependent fluorescence, co-labelled with the macrophage/microglia-associated marker IBA1. Others have shown that cells expressing macrophage/microglia markers associate with retinal neovascular structures in proportion to disease burden. Hence we propose that our probe may be used to image and to estimate the levels of retinal neovascular disease in real-time in living systems.

Secretogranin III as a novel target for the therapy of choroidal neovascularization

Wet age-related macular degeneration (AMD) with choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a leading cause of vision loss in the elderly. The advent of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) drugs represents a major breakthrough in wet AMD therapy but with limited efficacy to improve visual acuity. Secretogranin III (Scg3, SgIII) was recently discovered as a novel angiogenic factor with VEGF-independent mechanisms. Scg3-neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) was reported to alleviate pathological retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice and retinal vascular leakage in diabetic mice with high efficacy and disease selectivity. Herein we investigated whether Scg3 is a novel angiogenic target for CNV therapy in mouse models. We found that anti-Scg3 ML49.3 mAb inhibited Scg3-induced proliferation and Src phosphorylation in human retinal microvascular endothelial cells. Intravitreal injection of Scg3-neutralizing polyclonal antibodies (pAb) or mAb significantly attenuated laser-induced CNV leakage, CNV 3D volume, lesion area and vessel density. Furthermore, subcutaneous administration of Scg3-neutralizing pAb or mAb significantly prevented Matrigel-induced CNV. The efficacy of anti-Scg3 pAb or mAb was comparable to VEGF inhibitor aflibercept. These findings suggest that Scg3 plays an important role in CNV pathogenesis and that anti-Scg3 mAb efficiently ameliorates laser- or Matrigel-induced CNV.

The effect of conditional knocking out vascular endothelial growth factor gene on the mouse model of oxygen induced retinopathy

Objective To observe the effect of conditional knocking out (KO) vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene on the mouse model of oxygen induced retinopathy (OIR). Methods The conditional VEGF KO mice were generated using Cre-Loxp technology, resulting in the deletion of VEGF in a portion of Muller cells permanently in mouse retina. Cre positive was CKO mice, Cre negative was NKO mice. OIR was induced by keeping mice in 75% oxygen at postnatal 7 days (P7) to P12 and in room air from P12 to P17 (each 20 mice for CKO and NKO, respectively). The mice mortality was analyzed. At day P17, the percentage of retinal avascular area was calculated using retinal flat-mounting with fluorescence angiography, the number of vascular endothelial cell nucleus breaking through retinal inner limiting membrane was counted with hematoxylin eosin (HE) staining of retinal sections, and the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF- 1α) was detected by immunofluorescence analysis. Results During the development of OIR, the mortality rate of CKO mice (65.00%) was higher than that of NKO mice (30.00%) with the significant difference (x2=4.912, P=0.027). At day P17, all the mice retinas were harvested. The retinal fluorescence angiography displayed that the normal retinal vascularization of CKO mice was delayed, and large avascular areas were observed. Meanwhile, rare new vascular plexus was found in CKO mice and the thickness of whole retina decreased dramatically. In contrast, NKO mice developed larger area of normal retinal vascular network structure with higher blood vessel density and more new vascular plexus with obvious fluorescein leakage. The percentage of avascular area in CKO mice [(28.31±11.15)%] was higher than NKO mice [(16.82±7.23)%] with the significant difference (t=2.734, P=0.014). The HE staining of retinal sections indicated smaller counts of vascular endothelial cell nucleus breaking through retinal inner limiting membrane in CKO mice (26.10±6.37) when compared to NKO mice (28.80±7.59), the difference was significant (t=2.437, P=0.016). The immunofluorescence analysis showed stronger expression of HIF-1α in CKO mice than NKO mice, which was mainly located in the retinal ganglion cell layer. Conclusions The local VEGF gene knockout partially inhibits retinal neovascularization in OIR mice. However, it also suppresses the normal retinal blood vascular development with a decrease of OIR mice survival ability. Key words: Microglia; Mice, knockout; Vascular endothelial growth factors; Disease models animal; Hypoxia-inducible factor 1, alpha subunit

Secretogranin III: a diabetic retinopathy-selective angiogenic factor.

Secretogranin III (Scg3) is a member of the granin protein family that regulates the biogenesis of secretory granules. Scg3 was recently discovered as an angiogenic factor, expanding its functional role to extrinsic regulation. Unlike many other known angiogenic factors, the pro-angiogenic actions of Scg3 are restricted to pathological conditions. Among thousands of quantified endothelial ligands, Scg3 has the highest binding activity ratio to diabetic vs. healthy mouse retinas and lowest background binding to normal vessels. In contrast, vascular endothelial growth factor binds to and stimulates angiogenesis of both diabetic and control vasculature. Consistent with its role in pathological angiogenesis, Scg3-neutralizing antibodies alleviate retinal vascular leakage in mouse models of diabetic retinopathy and retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice. This review summarizes our current knowledge of Scg3 as a regulatory protein of secretory granules, highlights its new role as a highly disease-selective angiogenic factor, and envisions Scg3 inhibitors as "selective angiogenesis blockers" for targeted therapy.

OTX008 inhibits retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice

Objective To investigate the inhibitory effects and possible related mechanism of OTX008 [a selective inhibitor of galectin-1 (Galectin-1)] on retinal neovascularization (RNV) in mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). Methods 7-day-old (P7) C57BL/6J mice were randomly (according to random number table) divided into 4 groups including normal group, OIR group, OIR-OTX008 group and OIR-phosphate buffered saline (PBS) group. To establish the OIR mouse model, mice from all groups except normal group were expose to (75±2)% oxygen for 5 days and then to room air. OIR-OTX008 group received an intravitreal injection of 1 μl (0.25 μg/μl) OTX008 at P12, OIR-PBS group received the equal volume (1 μl) of PBS injection. Mice from 4 groups were euthanized at P17, and retinas were collected for molecular biological analysis and morphological study. RNV was evaluated by counting the number of pre-retinal neovascular nuclei and the whole-mount immunofluorescent staining of mouse retina. Cyrosections of retinas were imaged via confocal microscopy to observe the enrichment of staining of Galectin-1. Protein levels of Galectin-1, Neuropilin-1 and phosphorylation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (pVEGFR2) were determined with Western blot. Results At P17, Galectin-1 expressed higher in retinal ganglion cell layer, inner plexiform layer and inner nuclear layer from OIR group and OIR-PBS group than normal group. Galectin-1 expressed less in cryosection retinas from OIR-OTX008 group than OIR group and OIR-PBS group. The numbers of pre-retinal neovascular cell nuclei from OIR group and OIR-PBS group were obviously more than that from normal group (t=9.314,P<0.05). The number of pre-retinal neovascular cell nuclei from OIR-OTX008 group were obviously lower than those from OIR group and OIR-PBS group (t=8.038, 7.774;P<0.05). The RNV tufts area (t=13.250, 12.570), non-perfusion area (t=15.590, 12.430) and hypoxic area (t=9.542, 9.928) from OIR-OTX008 group were significantly smaller than those in OIR group and OIR-PBS group (P<0.05). Protein levels of Galectin-1 (t=24.800, 23.060), Neuropilin-1 (t=4.120, 3.530) and pVEGFR2 (t=25.880, 15.480) in the OIR-OTX008 group were significantly down-regulated than those from OIR group and OIR-PBS group (P<0.05). Conclusion Intravitreal injection of OTX008 inhibits RNV and ameliorates retinal hypoxia in mice model of OIR possibly through down-regulating Galectin-1, Neurolinpin-1 and pVEGFR2. Key words: Retinal neovascularization/prevention c Galectin 1/antagonists i Animal experimentation

Secretogranin III as a disease-associated ligand for antiangiogenic therapy of diabetic retinopathy.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a leading cause of vision loss with retinal vascular leakage and/or neovascularization. Current antiangiogenic therapy against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has limited efficacy. In this study, we applied a new technology of comparative ligandomics to diabetic and control mice for the differential mapping of disease-related endothelial ligands. Secretogranin III (Scg3) was discovered as a novel disease-associated ligand with selective binding and angiogenic activity in diabetic but not healthy vessels. In contrast, VEGF bound to and induced angiogenesis in both diabetic and normal vasculature. Scg3 and VEGF signal through distinct receptor pathways. Importantly, Scg3-neutralizing antibodies alleviated retinal vascular leakage in diabetic mice with high efficacy. Furthermore, anti-Scg3 prevented retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice, a surrogate model for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). ROP is the most common cause of vision impairment in children, with no approved drug therapy. These results suggest that Scg3 is a promising target for novel antiangiogenic therapy of DR and ROP.

Inhibitory effect of Samul-tang on retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy.

BackgroundRetinal neovascularization is a common cause of vision loss in proliferative diabetic retinopathy, retinopathy of prematurity and age-related macular degeneration. Samul-tang (SMT) is a widely used traditional herbal medicine in East Asia and is also known as Shimotsu-to in Japanese and Si-Wu decoction in Chinese. This study was designed to evaluate the inhibitory effect of SMT on retinal pathogenic angiogenesis in a mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR).MethodThe mice were exposed to a 75 % concentration of oxygen for five days, starting on postnatal day 7 (P7-P12). The mice were then exposed to room air and were intraperitoneally injected with SMT (10 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg) once per day for five days (P12-P16). On P17, we measured retinal neovascularization and evaluated both the expression of angiogenesis-related proteins and changes in the gene expression level in the mRNA.ResultsSMT reduced the area of the central retina and reduced retinal neovascularization in OIR mice. The protein array revealed that SMT reduced the level of SDF-1 protein expression. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that the HIF-1α, SDF-1, CXCR4 and VEGF mRNA levels in the retinas of OIR mice were elevated compared with those of normal control mice. However, SMT decreased the levels of HIF-1α, SDF-1, CXCR4 and VEGF mRNA in OIR mice.ConclusionWe are the first to elucidate that SMT inhibits the retinal pathogenic angiogenesis induced by ischemic retinopathy in OIR mice. SMT significantly inhibited retinal neovascularization by downregulating HIF-1α, SDF-1, CXCR4 and VEGF. Based on the results of our study, SMT could be a useful herbal medicine for treating ischemic retinopathy.

Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid reduces retinal angiogenesis in a mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy

Retinal diseases characterized by pathologic retinal angiogenesis are the leading causes of blindness worldwide. Although therapies directed toward vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) represent a significant step forward in the treatment of proliferative retinopathies, further improvements are needed. In the last few years, an intense research activity has focused around the use of herbal and traditional natural medicines as an alternative for slowing down the progression of proliferative retinopathies. In the present study, we investigated the antiangiogenic effects of acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA), one of the active principles derived from the plant Boswellia serrata, used in Ayurvedic systems of medicine. We studied the antiangiogenic properties of AKBA using the mouse model of oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR), which mimics the neovascular response seen in human retinopathy of prematurity. We first evaluated the effects of subcutaneously administered AKBA on the expression/activity of proteins which are known to play a role in the OIR model. In the retina, AKBA increased expression and activity of Src homology region 2 domain-containing phosphatase 1 and reduced the phosphorylation of the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) as well as VEGF expression and VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-2 phosphorylation. Likely as a result of these effects, AKBA significantly reduced retinal neovascularization in OIR mice without affecting retinal cell survival and retinal function. Using retinal explants cultured in hypoxia and an activator of STAT3 phosphorylation, we showed that the AKBA-induced inhibition of VEGFR-2 phosphorylation is likely to be mediated by a mechanism depending on an SHP-1/STAT3/VEGF axis. In the OIR model, neovascularization results from the activation of retinal endothelial cells, therefore we evaluated whether AKBA affected the angiogenic response of human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRMECs). We observed that AKBA reduced proliferation, migration and tube formation in HRMECs stimulated with exogenous VEGF, while it reduced migration and tube formation in untreated HRMECs. Taken together, our results demonstrate the antiangiogenic effects of AKBA in a model of pathologic neovascularization, providing a rationale for further investigation of AKBA as a promising therapeutic agent to reduce the impact of proliferative retinopathies.

Expression of netrin-1 receptors in retina of oxygen-induced retinopathy in mice.

BackgroundNetrin-1 has been reported to promote retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). However, netrin-1 receptors, which may mediate netrin-1 action during retinal neovascularization, have not been characterized. In this study, we investigated netrin-1 receptor subtype expression and associated changes in the retinas of mice with OIR.MethodsC57BL/6J mice were exposed to 75±2% oxygen for 5 days and then returned to normal air to induce retinal neovascularization. Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot were used to examine the expression of netrin-1 receptor subtypes in the mouse retinas. Double staining of netrin-1 receptor subtypes and isolectin B4 was used to determine the location of the netrin-1 receptor subtypes in the retinas. Inhibition of retinal neovascularization was achieved by UNC5B shRNA plasmid intravitreal injection. Retinal neovascularization was examined by fluorescein angiography and quantification of preretinal neovascular nuclei in retinal sections.ResultsRT-PCR results showed that, except for UNC5A, netrin-1 receptor subtypes UNC5B, UNC5C, UNC5D, DCC, neogenin, and A2b were all expressed in the retinas of OIR mice 17 days after birth. Western blots showed that only UNC5B expression was significantly increased on that day, and immunofluorescence results showed that only UNC5B and neogenin were expressed in retinal vessels. Treatment of OIR mice with the UNC5B shRNA plasmid dramatically reduced neovascular tufts and neovascular outgrowth into the inner limiting membrane.ConclusionsUNC5B may promote retinal neovascularization in OIR mice.

PPARα regulates mobilization and homing of endothelial progenitor cells through the HIF-1α/SDF-1 pathway.

The mechanism for the antiangiogenic activity of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) remains incompletely understood. Endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) are known to participate in neovascularization (NV). The purpose of this study was to investigate whether PPARα regulates EPC during retinal NV. Retinal NV was induced by oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). Mice with OIR were injected intraperitoneally with the PPARα agonist fenofibric acid (FA) or with adenovirus expressing PPARα (Ad-PPARα). Flow cytometry was used to quantify circulating and retinal EPC. Serum stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) levels were measured by ELISA. Hypoxia was induced in primary human retinal capillary endothelial cells (HRCEC) and mouse brain endothelial cells (MBEC) by CoCl2. Levels of SDF-1 and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) were measured by Western blotting. Fenofibric acid and overexpression of PPARα attenuated the increase of circulating and retinal EPC, correlating with suppressed retinal NV in OIR mice at P17. The PPARα knockout enhanced the OIR-induced increase of circulating and retinal EPC. Fenofibric acid decreased retinal HIF-1α and SDF-1 levels as well as serum SDF-1 levels in the OIR model. In HRCEC, PPARα inhibited HIF-1α nuclear translocation and SDF-1 overexpression induced by hypoxia. Further, MBEC from PPARα(-/-) mice showed more prominent activation of HIF-1α and overexpression of SDF-1 induced by hypoxia, compared with the wild-type (WT) MBEC. PPARα failed to block SDF-1 overexpression induced by a constitutively active mutant of HIF-1α, suggesting that regulation of SDF-1 by PPARα was through blockade of HIF-1α activation. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha suppresses ischemia-induced EPC mobilization and homing through inhibition of the HIF-1α/SDF-1 pathway. This represents a novel molecular mechanism for PPARα's antiangiogenic effects.

Anti-angiogenic effect of bare titanium dioxide nanoparticles on pathologic neovascularization without unbearable toxicity

Local application requires fewer nanoparticles than systemic delivery to achieve effective concentration. In this study, we investigated the potential toxicity and efficacy of bare titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles by local administration into the eye. Mono-disperse, 20nm-size TiO2 nanoparticles did not affect the viability of retinal constituent cells within certain range of concentrations (~1.30μg/mL). Furthermore, local delivery of TiO2 nanoparticles did not induce any significant toxicity at the level of gene expression and histologic integrity in the retina of C57BL/6 mice. Interestingly, at the low concentration (130ng/mL) without definite toxicity, these nanoparticles suppressed in vitro angiogenesis processes and in vivo retinal neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy mice when they are administered intravitreally. Taken together, our results demonstrate that even TiO2 nanoparticles can be safely utilized for the treatment of retinal diseases at the adequate concentration levels, especially through local administration. From the Clinical EditorIn this paper the local application of titanium dioxide is described as a local treatment for retinal diseases associated with neovascularization. While these nanoparticles have known systemic toxicity, this work demonstrates that when applied locally in a mouse model, they can be used without observable toxicity even in their native forms.

MicroRNA-126 inhibits ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization via regulating angiogenic growth factors

To investigate the potential transcriptional regulation and signal pathway of a single microRNA in ischemia-induced retinal neovascularization (NV), we used oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR) in establishing retinal NV model, and quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR analyzing a microRNA (miR-126) alteration. The mice were treated with plasmid pCMV-MIR-126/liposome mixture intravitreal injection, using pCMV-MIR/liposome mixture as control. The expression levels of VEGF, IGF-2 and HIF-1α, and the level changes of total and phosphorylated p38, ERK in retina from OIR mice were determined by western blot analysis. The effects of miR-126 on retinal NV in OIR mice were identified with fluoresecin angiography and H & E staining. No effect of miR-126 intravitreal injection on retinal vessels was performed with CD31 stained retinal sections. Our results showed that miR-126 was significantly decreased in retina from OIR mice. We confirmed that restoration of miR-126 in retina overcame the high levels of VEGF, IGF-2 and HIF-1α through downregulating p38 and ERK signaling molecules in OIR model, and that miR-126 intravitreal injection reduced retinal NV in OIR model. These results suggest that miR-126 might play a potential transcriptional role in the pathogenesis in diabetic retinopathy.

The Roles of Vitreal Macrophages and Circulating Leukocytes in Retinal Neovascularization

To analyze the roles of vitreal macrophages and circulating leukocytes in retinal vascular growth. Bone marrow (BM) cells from green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic mice were transplanted into postnatal day (P)1 mice after irradiation. The mice were exposed to 76% to 78% oxygen (P7-P12), to initiate oxygen-induced retinopathy (OIR). The eyes were collected at P8, P17, and P30, to analyze the engraftment of GFP-positive cells in the retina. GFP-positive peritoneal macrophages, clodronate liposomes, or control liposomes were injected into the eyes at P5 or P12 to examine the effects at P8 or P17. The number of Iba1-positive vitreal macrophages was quantified from histologic sections at P12 and P17. Few transplanted GFP-positive cells were found in the retina at P8 in both wild-type and OIR mice. However, their number increased at P17 during retinal neovascularization in OIR. Most GFP-positive cells were Iba1-positive microglia, which comprised a minority of the total retinal microglia. Intravitreal injection of peritoneal macrophages showed only incidental migration of these cells into the wild-type retinas (P8), whereas the engraftment was more robust, typically around the neovascularization, in OIR mice (P17). Furthermore, native macrophages in the vitreous cavity became fewer (37.7% reduction) during neovascularization in OIR at P17. The selective depletion of vitreal macrophages by clodronate liposomes at P12 reduced retinal neovascularization in OIR mice by 59.0% at P17. Vitreal macrophages are attracted to the site of pathologic angiogenesis triggered by retinal ischemia, where they actively participate in vascular development.

Expression of FLT4 in hypoxia-induced neovascular models in vitro and in vivo.

Toinvestigatetheexpression of FLT4in retina with oxygen induced retinopathy (OIR) and in brain endothelial cell lines (bEnd3) under hypoxia conditions in mice. Fifty-two one-week-old C57BL/6J mice were divided into control group and hypoxia group. The mice of hypoxia group were exposed to 75% oxygen for 5 days and then returned to the room air to induce retinal neovascularization. Mice in control group were raised in the environment of room air at the same time. The expressions of FLT4 mRNA and protein were checked with RT-PCR and Western Blot analysis at postnatal day 14, 17 and 21 (P14, P17 and P21) respectively. 125mmol/L CoCl(2) were added to the culture medium of bEnd3 cell, proteins were extracted in 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours and FLT4 levels were examined by Western Blot analysis. The mRNAand protein level ofFLT4expressedinP14 and P17 OIR mice retina statistically up-regulated as compared with those in control group, but there was no statistical difference between OIR group and control group at P21. FLT4 levels increased significantly in 12, 24 and 48 hours hypoxia intervened bEnd3 cells, its levels in 72 hours increased mildly but showed no significance. FLT4 levels increase in OIR mice retinas and bEnd3 cells in hypoxia. It may play an important role in endothelial cells proliferation in hypoxia and retinal neovascularization in OIR mice.