Neolithic Contexts Research Articles

Skin Boats in Scandinavia? Evaluating the Maritime Technologies of the Neolithic Pitted Ware Culture

AbstractThe Early and Middle Neolithic (3500–2300 [Before Current Era] BCE) Pitted Ware Culture (PWC) was a critical component of the historical trajectory of Scandinavia’s maritime history. The hunter-gatherer societies of the PWC were highly adapted to maritime environments, and they fished, hunted, travelled, and traded across great distances over water. Exactly what boat types they used, however, is still an open question. Understanding the maritime technologies used by the PWC is a critical research area as they had an important impact on subsequent maritime adaptations in Scandinavian prehistory. Unfortunately, finding intact boats from Neolithic contexts is extremely difficult. Here, we present indirect evidence for the use of skin boats by PWC people as a first step towards building a dialog on the types of boats that would have been used during this period. We argue that multiple lines of evidence suggest that skin boats were widely used for every-day activities and long-distance voyages by PWC peoples and will discuss the implications of possible complex boat use by Neolithic peoples for our understanding of early Scandinavian maritime societies.

A “shaman” burial from the PPNA settlement of Çemka Höyük, Upper Tigris Basin, Turkiye

Knowledge of the burial customs of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) in the Near East is increasing. Particularly, lately a large number of burials and skeletal remains have been unearthed in the Upper Tigris Basin, thanks to a number of new excavation projects in recent years. The newly revealed findings indicate that PPNA burial customs varied considerably in the region from site to site. However, the 10th millennium BCE burial ÇH 2019/05 at Çemka Höyük shows as well that there are also different burial practices with in settlements. ÇH 2019/05 belongs to a female individual, accompanied by animal skeletal elements, who appears to may have been a shaman or at least had been buried by someone practicing ways associated with what we understand nowadays as animism or shamanism. Hence, the burial may represent one of the earliest known examples of its kind in an Anatolian Neolithic context.

Identification of microbial pathogens in Neolithic Scandinavian humans

With the Neolithic transition, human lifestyle shifted from hunting and gathering to farming. This change altered subsistence patterns, cultural expression, and population structures as shown by the archaeological/zooarchaeological record, as well as by stable isotope and ancient DNA data. Here, we used metagenomic data to analyse if the transitions also impacted the microbiome composition in 25 Mesolithic and Neolithic hunter-gatherers and 13 Neolithic farmers from several Scandinavian Stone Age cultural contexts. Salmonella enterica, a bacterium that may have been the cause of death for the infected individuals, was found in two Neolithic samples from Battle Axe culture contexts. Several species of the bacterial genus Yersinia were found in Neolithic individuals from Funnel Beaker culture contexts as well as from later Neolithic context. Transmission of e.g. Y. enterocolitica may have been facilitated by the denser populations in agricultural contexts.

T-shaped antler axes in Lithuania : previously unrevealed Middle Holocene hunter-gatherer technology

This paper discusses one of the most characteristic hunter-gatherer osseous implements — the T-shaped antler axe. These are made from red deer (Cervus elaphus) antler beam by removing the trez tine and creating a perforation for a shaft in its place. This type of axe is quite widely known in the Late Mesolithic and Early Neolithic contexts of northern, western and central Europe. Until now, T-shaped antler axes have been only sporadically mentioned in research on Lithuanian prehistory. Ten T-axes are currently known from eight find locations, concentrated in western and southern Lithuania. These axes were mainly discovered as single finds during wetland drainage or peat extraction. Only two excavated sites contained T-axes in settlement refuse layers. This paper provides details of the find circumstances and technological features of all ten axes, as well as the results of AMS 14C dating. The dating suggests that this technology had already spread among hunter-gatherers in the territory of Lithuania as early as the second half of the 6th millennium, and continued at least until the transition to the 4th millennium cal BC.

Cronología de las Minas neolíticas de Can Tintorer (Gavà, Barcelona): explotación minera y uso funerario

This paper aims to determine the chronology of one of the most significant Neolithic contexts in the Northeast of the Iberian Peninsula: the Can Tintorer mining complex (Gavà, Barcelona). Based on the statistical analysis and Bayesian modelling of a total of 23 radiocarbon dates, 5 of which have not been published until now, the work addresses the temporal relationships and the degree of contemporaneity between the different areas of mining exploitation and their use as a funerary space. Finally, the temporality of the mining complex in the framework of the Neolithic of the NE of the Iberian Peninsula is also tested, based on several comparative statistical analyses with the available radiocarbon dates from settlement and funerary contexts from this period in the region.

Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant

In northwestern Africa, lifestyle transitioned from foraging to food production around 7,400 years ago but what sparked that change remains unclear. Archaeological data support conflicting views: (1) that migrant European Neolithic farmers brought the new way of life to North Africa1–3 or (2) that local hunter-gatherers adopted technological innovations4,5. The latter view is also supported by archaeogenetic data6. Here we fill key chronological and archaeogenetic gaps for the Maghreb, from Epipalaeolithic to Middle Neolithic, by sequencing the genomes of nine individuals (to between 45.8- and 0.2-fold genome coverage). Notably, we trace 8,000 years of population continuity and isolation from the Upper Palaeolithic, via the Epipaleolithic, to some Maghrebi Neolithic farming groups. However, remains from the earliest Neolithic contexts showed mostly European Neolithic ancestry. We suggest that farming was introduced by European migrants and was then rapidly adopted by local groups. During the Middle Neolithic a new ancestry from the Levant appears in the Maghreb, coinciding with the arrival of pastoralism in the region, and all three ancestries blend together during the Late Neolithic. Our results show ancestry shifts in the Neolithization of northwestern Africa that probably mirrored a heterogeneous economic and cultural landscape, in a more multifaceted process than observed in other regions.

A Unique Painted Sherd from the Mid-Sixth Millennium BCE Neolithic Context of Northeastern Iran

Depicting animal motifs on pottery vessels of prehistoric cultures of the Iranian Plateau was begun as early as the turn of the seventh millennium BCE in the lowland Susiana Plain of southwestern Iran. Such motifs appeared in the Neolithic of northeastern Iran, known as Chakhmaq Culture, as early as the early sixth millennium BCE. During a stratigraphic excavation at a Neolithic site, dated to ca. 7000–5000 BCE, in the Shahroud Plain of northeastern Iran, a body sherd was found depicting a scene of mating goats rotating around the vessel. Regarding its early date, ca. 5650–5550 cal BCE, and its naturalistic way of representing the animal motifs, this sherd is unique among the contemporaneous Neolithic sites of the Iranian Plateau.

Management of symbols: Weapons variability and the emergence of large tanged points in early pre-pottery neolithic context of Motza, Judean Hills, Israel

Large tanged points characteristic of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) in the Levant signify a prominent departure from the long-lasting use of small-size projectile implements. The reason for the emergence of these tools remains enigmatic, especially on the background of experimental evidence from elsewhere indicating greater efficiency of small-size counterparts in hunting as well as in warfare. Here we investigate this phenomenon based on the early PPNB (EPPNB) occupation of Motza, where large tanged Jericho points occur together with relatively small and side-notched Helwan points.Examination of projectile damage patterns and metric characteristics showing that both types constituted tips of complex/high velocity projectiles led to delineation of function-related requirements associated with large tanged points in particular. These insights together with recent studies linking pre-domestic management of ungulates with Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)–PPNB transition allowed formulation of a hypothesis that the emergence of large points reflected a changing perception of the kill of the animals in humans' care, namely introduction of proto sacrifice conducted in the form of ritual/ceremonial hunt. Our hypothesis, tested against the spatial distribution of Helwan and Jericho points in the EPPNB occupation of Motza with encouraging results, requires further examination involving analyses of functional and contextual aspects of large tanged points deriving from different phases of the period.

Grinding and Abrading Activities in the Earlier Neolithic of Northern Greece

Despite their widespread presence and potential to shed light on various aspects of prehistoric life, for a long time Neolithic macrolithics attracted little scholarly attention. The situation, however, is rapidly changing as more and more assemblages are being studied and published systematically. The study of the grinding and abrading tools from the earlier Neolithic site of Pontokomi-Souloukia in northern Greece is part of this recent trend, as it integrates macroscopic examination, use wear, microbotanical and macrobotanical analysis, an experimental program, ethnographic data, as well as contextual analysis. In this article, we present the results of our study and make comparisons with other assemblages, placing the Pontokomi-Souloukia material in its wider Aegean Neolithic context.

Use-wear analysis of grinding tools and the exploration of plant processing in the Neolithic of Europe: State of the art and perspectives

Grinding and pounding implements are among the most widespread and most informative artefacts when it comes to addressing questions related to plant exploitation, especially in the field of food preparation practices. While use-wear analysis using optical microscopy (stereomicroscope and metallographic microscope, quantification using rugosimetry, confocal microscopy and 3D analysis combined with GIS modelling) and microresidues analysis (phytoliths, starch grains, palynomorphs) were considered innovative fields of research at the start of the 2000′s, they are now routinely and effectively applied in combination. Functional analysis of grinding tools from Late Mesolithic and Neolithic contexts in Europe now provides a general overview of the diversity of plants processed and of the techniques involved in their treatment prior to food preparation. The grinding of cereals has been shown to have predominated, but legumes, nuts and grass plants also played a major role. Nonetheless, depending on the region and cultural background, different types of grinding systems were employed, suggesting a strong link with varied food habits throughout the continent. After presenting an overview of our knowledge of plant transformation for food preparation, we look at challenging new issues for future research, most of which are centred on methodological improvements.

Moving to the land: First archaeometric study of chert procurement at Cueva de la Cocina (Eastern Iberia)

AbstractThe present work represents the first attempt using an archaeometric approach to characterize the potential chert outcrops and retrace the provenance of the chert raw materials in the Mesolithic and Neolithic contexts of the Eastern Iberia central site of Cueva de la Cocina (Dos Aguas, Valencia). Therefore, a research project aimed at identifying and characterizing potential sources in the surroundings of the site was carried out, as a first step, to test some hypotheses related to raw material provenance. Elemental profiles of several archaeological artifacts and of geological samples collected in different local and nonlocal outcrops were obtained using X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. These chemical data were processed using multivariate statistics to investigate the possible links between the outcrops and archaeological artifacts. Preliminary results point to the use of local raw materials and also the presence of rocks outcropping in a perimeter of more than 50 km around Cueva de la Cocina, opening a new window to investigate the socioecological dynamics of the last hunter‐gatherer and the first farmer inhabitants from a diachronic point of view in this region.

More than meat? Examining cattle slaughter, feasting and deposition in later 4th millennium BC Atlantic Europe: A case study from Kilshane, Ireland

Cattle are widely recognised as having important economic, social, symbolic and religious roles in Neolithic communities. This high status appears strongly linked with feasting and commensality, events during which a great number of cattle are slaughtered and their carcasses purposefully deposited. This paper presents details of an unusually large assemblage of cattle remains recovered from the ditches of a later 4th millennium BC enclosure at Kilshane, Co. Dublin, in eastern Ireland. Currently, Middle Neolithic ceramics and charcoal provide termini ante quos dates for the assemblage, and different strategies for directly radiocarbon dating the bones confirm the low preservation of biomolecules. Extensive osteological analysis identified some traditional markers of feasting activity alongside less commonly observed characteristics, such as the careful deposition of non-meat bearing elements. We consider the Kilshane assemblage in its wider northwest Europe and Neolithic context and highlight some additional considerations when identifying feasting in prehistory.

Management of Symbols: Weapons Variability and the Emergence of Large Tanged Points in the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic Context of Motza, Judean Hills, Israel

Management of Symbols: Weapons Variability and the Emergence of Large Tanged Points in the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic Context of Motza, Judean Hills, Israel

Management of Symbols: Weapons Variability and the Emergence of Large Tanged Points in the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic Context of Motza, Judean Hills, Israel

Management of Symbols: Weapons Variability and the Emergence of Large Tanged Points in the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic Context of Motza, Judean Hills, Israel

Interactions, communication and tradition: The personal ornaments of Suluin cave (Antalya, Turkey) in late Neolithic context

The cave site of Suluin, inhabited for a short time around 6000 cal BCE, is located close to Antalya, slightly inland from the south coast of Turkey. The ornaments of this period are not well known in the region and the intensive excavation methodology applied at Suluin has ensured that all ornament-related material, including preforms, production wasters and fragments, was recovered meaning that the evidence presented here gives a comprehensive view of ornament deposition at the site. The ornaments show that Suluin was a well-connected small settlement, with material that travelled from the Euphrates basin, and bead types, technologies and materials that are shared with areas ranging from Syria to west and northwest Turkey. This article places the materials, technology and use of ornaments at the site within their wider late Neolithic context by considering possible exchange of ornaments and shared material culture practices and asking whether this might help us to understand processes of material culture change during prehistory.

Exploring commensality, household and solidarity. Evidence of a medium-scale community gathering place in Neolithic Kleitos 1, north-western Greece

This paper describes the cooking installations found inside a specific building, Building C, in the Late Neolithic site of Kleitos 1, their morphological and functional diversification, how they changed and evolved throughout time, and their spatial arrangements. Building C provided the stratigraphic information required by the authors to discern two distinct chronological phases, during which a significant change took place in the characteristics and organisation of the cooking facilities in the building. Building C underwent a transformation from a household unit during phase A to a medium-scale gathering place, capable of hosting a certain number of people, in Phase B. The identification of Building C as a medium-scale gathering place is based on the quantity and quality of its cooking facilities in comparison both to findings in other buildings on the site and to two well-explored Neolithic contexts of large-scale gatherings in Northern Greece, Makriyialos and Promachon-Topolniča. This is the first time a medium-scale gathering place has been recorded in Neolithic Greece. The aim of this paper is to highlight the importance of multi-scalar gatherings and the broader variability witnessed in social dynamics and site organisation in the Late Neolithic period of Northern Greece (late 6th to early 5th millennium cal BC).

Mollusc Shells from Neolithic Contexts in the Lake Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

The study of the Neolithic period in the Lake Eyasi Basin was dominated by attempts to formulate the area’s chronology, mobility, settlement patterns, subsistence, and cultural capabilities of Neolithic people as attested by domesticated animals, pottery, and lithic artefacts. Occasionally, studies on molluscs were mentioned, but rarely described in detail. Neolithic sites across the Lake Eyasi Basin have yielded remains of both terrestrial (gastropods) and freshwater mollusc shells (mussels). The abundance of mollusc shell remains in the archaeological records of the Lake Eyasi Basin have played a great role in chronological settings, mobility and community integrations, studies of settlement patterns, and other analyses. Mollusc remains have often been widely interpreted as a food supplement to other reliable food resources such as meat, vegetables and fish. Archaeological excavations and detailed analysis of the shells from Mumba rock shelter, Jangwani 3 and Laghangasimjega 2 have shown that molluscs played different roles. They were effectively used in tool manufacturing, as practical implements for handling objects, as scraping tools, as harpoons for fishing weapons, and sometimes for symbolism and in rituals. Terrestrial and freshwater molluscs coexisted in the Lake Eyasi Basin and were utilised equally by the Neolithic people during the Mid-Holocene period.
 Keywords: Mollusc shells; Neolithic; Lake Eyasi Basin; Northern Tanzania

Radiocarbon Dates Associated to Neolithic Contexts (Ca. 5900 – 2000 Cal BC) from the Northwestern Mediterranean Arch to the High Rhine Area

This paper presents a compilation of radiocarbon dates associated with the process of arrival, development and consolidation of the first farming communities that settled between the north-western Mediterranean Arch and the High Rhine area approximately between 5900 and 2000 cal BC covering a large geographical area previously out of the main focus of ¹⁴C data compilations. The database includes dates from scientific publications and it incorporates several fields for evaluating the quality and the reliability of the available samples. It overall provides 3617 radiocarbon dates that allow the scientific community to build chronological models that can be combined with other proxies such as spatial location, type of sample or chronocultural phase.

Food practices of the first farmers of Europe: Combined use-wear and microbotanical studies of Early Neolithic grinding tools from the Paris Basin

Food practices have always been a key issue to reconstruct part of the cultural identities of past and present societies. In archaeology, the question of vegetal processing and consumption has generally been discussed through different, yet complementary lenses that include botanical remains and cooking pots. However, it has seldom been integrated in a combined approach. Our paper explores the characteristics and role of plant transformation in Early Neolithic contexts from the Paris Basin (5100–4900 BCE), by combining use-wear analysis of grinding tools and the study of microbotanical remains (starch grains and phytoliths). Our integrated approach reinforces the interpretations and reduces the methodological limitations that arise when each analysis is considered separately. It also proposes a more complex vision than initially expected regarding the uses and lifecycles of grinding tools in daily plant preparation. Together with the dominant processing of cereals and legumes, tubers and rhizomes appear to have been regularly ground on querns. Different steps in plants processing are also evident, such as dehusking, heating, and sprouting. Other clues point towards the transformation of bark and ferns, known for their varied medicinal properties. These results and related methodological issues support discussions regarding the possible conservatism or innovations in vegetal food practices of Early Neolithic farmers inhabiting a region located at the most westerly point of the Linearbandkeramik expansion during the final centuries of this first wave of Neolithic dispersal throughout the European continent.

The Galena Objects from Neolithic Ulucak: The Earliest Metallic Finds in Western Turkey

The earliest metal finds in central and eastern Anatolia are small copper and malachite beads dating from the 9th millennium BC onwards. However, the presence of metallic finds in Neolithic contexts from western Anatolia are rarely known. An analysis of metallic finds from Ulucak Höyük shows that galena was used at the site from the early 7th millennium BC to the early 6th millennium BC. Objects made of galena from initial phases at the site are considered personal ornaments, while an
 increasing number of galena lumps in relation to ovens were found in later phases. Thus, galena finds from Ulucak Höyük suggest that at first this raw material seemed to have been perceived as an exotic “stone”, while a full understanding of its properties may have been developed later.