NEO Personality Traits Research Articles

Personality Traits and the Clinical Environment`s Stress Resources in Nursing Students.

The clinical environment always has been the most stressful course of nursing education. Personality traits can be influential factors in stress resources and responding to stress. The present study investigates the correlation between personality traits and nursing students' stress resources in the clinical environment. This descriptive correlational study was planned and performed on Zanjan University of Medical Sciences nursing students. The research population was 215 students selected by stratified random sampling method from all nursing students in the third to eighth semesters. We used an electronic questionnaire for data gathering, including three sections: demographic characteristics, NEO personality traits, and stress resources in the clinical environment. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The most and least stressful resources were related to the score of unpleasant emotions and interpersonal relationships. We found a significant positive correlation between neuroticism personality traits and all four stress resources (p < 0.05). The results also showed a significant correlation between all scores of personality traits and perceived stress from unpleasant emotions except the openness to experience trait (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the relationship between age, gender, semester, interest, and stress resources in the clinical environment was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Paying attention to the nursing student's clinical performance to maintain the patient's health is vital and unavoidable. Therefore, more than ever in the preclinical course of nursing education, improving the psychological readiness and simulation training method can reduce the harmful effects of the clinical environment's stress resources on their clinical performance.

Relationship between personality traits and psychological characteristic of achievement motivation in girl’s students

Introduction: Motivation is essential in learning and progress. Every person's action has a source of reason whose purpose is to strengthen the person's desirable efforts and feelings. Aim: This study examines the relationship between personality traits and psychological characteristic of achievement motivation among girl’s students. Method: The method was descriptive- correlational. The population includes all students among ShareRay branch of Islamic Azad University, Sama and AmirKabir Universities in 2018-2019. 175 girls were selected by the available sampling method. Subjects completed the Neo Personality Traits (NEO-AC), and Gill Achievement Motivation Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient test with using SPSS-20. Results: The results showed that there were significant inverse relationships between neuroticism personality trait with conscientiousness, extraversion, and agreeableness (P&lt;0.05), a direct and significant relationship between conscientiousness and agreeableness (P&lt;0.05), and a direct relationship between extraversion with conscientiousness and agreeableness (P&lt;0.05). Finally, none of the personality components had a significant relationship with achievement motivation (P&gt;0.05). Conclusion: According to the results of the present research, the personality characteristics of female students can be mentioned as an important factor in improving their psychological components. Thus; based on the obtained results, it is suggested that in explaining the results related to the psychological characteristics of female students, their personality characteristics and achievement motivation should be considered.

The causal relationship between personality traits and job stress with the quality of work life through the mediation of job attachment

Background and purpose: Today, a new trend has started in organizations, and work in organizations has gained a new meaning. Organizations that offer a good quality of work life to their employees have a good index in attracting and retaining employees. Therefore, the quality of employees' working life is the key to any organization's success, increasing employee satisfaction and strengthening their learning and flexibility in a changing environment. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate the causal relationship between personality traits and job stress with the quality of work life through the mediation of job attachment. Methodology: The research method was correlation and path analysis. The statistical population of the research was made up of all the teachers and teachers working in education in Ludab region (Boyer Ahmad city) in the academic year 2022-2023. The statistical sample of the research was 250 teachers who were selected by convenience sampling. In order to measure the research variables, Walton's (1973) work-life quality questionnaires, Davis et al.'s job stress (1991), NEO personality traits (Costa &amp; McCree, 1985), and Edwards and Klipatrick's (1984) job attachment were used. Evaluation of the proposed model was done using path analysis. Results: The findings showed that the direct paths of personality traits and job stress and job attachment with quality of work life and the direct paths of personality traits and job stress with job attachment were statistically significant. On the other hand, the results showed that the indirect paths of personality traits and job stress through job attachment with the quality of work life were significant. Conclusion: Generally, personality traits and job stress significantly correlate with the quality of work life through the mediation of job attachment in teachers.

Modeling between primary maladaptive schemas and suicidal personality traits: mediation of the meaning of life in Gachsaran high school students

Background and Aim: In the present study, the relationship between early maladaptive schemas and personality traits with suicidal tendency was investigated through the mediation of the meaning of life. Method: The current research was descriptive and correlational (structural equation modeling). 420 secondary school students of Gachsaran city (215 girls and 205 boys) were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling method. In order to measure the studied variables, Yang et al.'s (1998) maladaptive schema questionnaires, Neo's personality traits (McCree and Costa, 1985), Steger et al.'s meaning of life (2006) and Mehrabi's suicide tendency (2009) were used. In this research, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used with AMOS version 26 software. Mediation relationships in the proposed model were tested using the bootstrap method. Results: The findings showed that the proposed model has a good fit with the data. Early maladaptive schemas had a negative and significant effect on the meaning of life (β=-0.11; P=0.017), but their effect on suicide tendency was not significant. Also, the findings showed that the personality traits of neuroticism (β=0.23, P&lt;0.001), extroversion (β=0.19, P&lt;0.002), agreeableness (β=0.17, P&lt;0.003), and conscientiousness (β=0.48, P&lt;0.001), had a significant predictive power of the meaning of life among students. Conclusion: The results related to indirect relationships also showed that primary maladaptive schemas and characteristics of neuroticism, extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness through the meaning of life had significant indirect effects on suicidal tendencies, but the indirect path of trait empiricism to suicidal tendency through the meaning of life was not significant.

Investigate the influence of citizenship education on social responsibility, social skills and environmental skills of Bojnord municipal employees

Background and Objective: The present study was carried out in order to investigate the influence of citizenship education on social responsibility, social skills and environmental skills of Bojnord municipal employees. Method: This study is practical quasi-experimental pre-test post-test type with a control group. The statistical population includes all the 810 municipal employees of Bojnord, from which 60 employees were chosen using simple random sampling. The chosen employees were divided into two 30-member groups. One group was control and the other was considered the test group. The pre-test was administered for both groups. After holding 12 sessions of citizenship education for the test group, the post-test was administered for both groups. Matsun social skills questionnaires (1983), Emam Goli environmental behavior (2012), Five NEO personality traits of responsibility subscale (1985) were used for data collection. The validity of questionnaires was of face and content validity, which was approved by professors. The validity of Matsun social skills questionnaires (1983), Emam Goli environmental behavior (2012), Five NEO personality traits of responsibility subscale (1985) was 0.859, 0.899, and 0.821, respectively. Descriptive statistics (frequency distribution table, mean, standard deviation), inferential statistics (the investigation of data normality via Kolmogrov-Smirnov, covariance analysis, t-test), SPSS 22 and PLS 3 were used for data analysis. Findings: Factor analysis results revealed that citizenship education influences social responsibility, social skills and environmental skills 25%, 39% and 79%, respectively. Hence, it can be claimed that citizenship education has had a positive meaningful influence on social responsibility, social skills and environmental skills of Bojnord municipal employees. Discus s ion and Conclusion: According to the results of factor analysis in the post-test phase on the experimental group, citizenship education had the greatest impact on responsibility. Therefore, as citizenship education increases, employees' responsibility for the two components (social and environmental skills) is more affected and improved.

P.2.022 - Five-factor personality is associated with aggression and mental distress in violent offenders

Background Five-Factor Model (FFM) personality traits, in particular low Agreeableness, low Conscientiousness, and high Neuroticism, have previously been associated with increased aggression and antisocial behavior [1]. Interestingly, the same personality characteristics have also been consistently linked to mental distress [2] and increased risk of psychopathology [3]. This is of relevance as both individual personality differences and mental distress, i.e., subclinical symptoms of stress and depression, have been found to influence important factors in the treatment of violent offenders, e.g., treatment motivation [4] and overall attrition rates [5]. Assuming the same FFM personality traits underlie both aggression and mental distress, insight into this relation could therefore have implications for assessment of treatment readiness as well as inform targeted interventions in criminal aggression. Yet to date, no studies have investigated whether FFM personality traits related to aggression are also associated with higher levels of mental distress within a cohort of violent offenders. Methods Forty male offenders (age, 19–59) with a documented history of violent and impulsive crimes (e.g., murder, attempted murder, rape, aggravated assault, robbery) were recruited from two closed state prisons in Denmark along with forty matched healthy non-offender controls (age, 18-54). All study participants completed the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R), the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ), and self-report measures assessing mental distress. Group comparisons for each of the five NEO personality traits were carried out using ANCOVA. Within the violent offender group, linear regression models were used to investigate associations between NEO personality traits and trait aggression and mental distress respectively. All models were corrected for age, education, and IQ. Results Compared to non-offender healthy controls, the violent offenders scored significantly lower on Agreeableness (F(77) = 10.3, p = 0.002), including the subfacets Trust, Altruism, and Compliance. Within the violent offender group, Agreeableness was negatively associated with trait aggression (β = -0.67, p Conclusion Our findings support previous reports that FFM personality traits are associated with aggression as well as mental distress. Specifically, our findings indicate that high Neuroticism is associated with both increased aggression and mental distress in violent offenders. Further, low Agreeableness differentiates non-offender controls from violent offenders and is associated with increased aggression in the latter group. We argue that the inclusion of FFM personality assessment in correctional settings may be used as a stratification tool for targeted rehabilitative treatment in violent offenders.

No evidence for a role of the serotonin 4 receptor in five-factor personality traits: A positron emission tomography brain study.

Serotonin (5-HT) brain architecture appears to be implicated in normal personality traits as supported by genetic associations and studies using molecular brain imaging. However, so far, no studies have addressed potential contributions to variation in normal personality traits from in vivo serotonin 4 receptor (5-HT4R) brain availability, which has recently become possible to image with Positron Emission Tomography (PET). This is particularly relevant since availability of 5-HT4R has been shown to adapt to synaptic levels of 5-HT and thus offers information about serotonergic tone in the healthy brain. In 69 healthy participants (18 females), the associations between personality traits assessed with the five-factor NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R) and regional cerebral 5-HT4R binding in neocortex, amygdala, hippocampus, and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) were investigated using linear regression models. The associations between each of the five personality traits and a latent variable construct of global 5-HT4R levels were also evaluated using latent variable structural equation models. We found no significant associations between the five NEO personality traits and regional 5-HT4R binding (all p-values > .17) or the latent construct of global 5-HT4R levels (all p-values > .37). Our findings indicate that NEO personality traits and 5-HT4R are not related in healthy participants. Under the assumption that global 5-HT4R levels index 5-HT tone, our data also suggest that 5-HT tone per se is not directly implicated in normal personality traits.

Relationship between personality traits with language anxiety among bilinguals

Language anxiety is a distinct complex of self-perception, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process. Effects of foreign language anxiety are particularly evident in the foreign language classroom, and this anxiety is a strong indicator of academic performance. So, the study aimed to investigate relationships between personality traits with language anxiety among bilinguals. The research method was correlation. The population was included all upper intermediate language learners and higher levels in language institutes, that 250 learners were selected by cluster sampling method, and responded to McCare &amp; Costa's NEO personality traits (neuroticism, openness to new experience, extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) and Horwitz's language anxiety inventory. The data were analysed by Pearson correlation formula. The results showed that there is positive and significant relationship between neuroticism and openness to new experience with language anxiety, and positive and significant relationship between extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness with language anxiety. Thus, it can be concluded that personality traits have important impact on language anxiety.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The role of personality traits in mobile dependency of high school students

In recent years, mobile phone is a necessary device in life, because it provides much easiness in education, work, business, etc. but extreme use of communication devices, especially among young people are related with mental health problems. So, the aim of this study was surveying of relationships between personality traits with Mobile dependency in high school students. The research method was correlation. The population were included all high school students that 220 students were selected by cluster sampling method. Research data were collected by McCare &amp; Costa's NEO personality traits (Neuroticism, Openness to new experience, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) and Jenaro's Mobile dependency inventory, and were analyzed by Pearson correlation formula. The results showed that there is positive and significant relationship between Neuroticism and openness to new experience with Mobile dependency, and positive and significant relationship between extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness with mobile dependency. Thus, it can be concluded that personality traits have main impact on mobile dependency.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The effect of biological rhythms and personality traits on the incidence of unsafe behaviors among bus drivers in Shiraz, Iran.

:Background:Unsafe behaviors are main causes of accidents mostly influenced by personal characteristics, social environment and also individual biorhythm cycles. This study was carried out to find out whether personality traits and biorhythm could affect the incidence of unsafe behaviors among city bus drivers.Methods:This cross-sectional study was conducted on 224 bus drivers in Shiraz, Iran, 2014. The data were collected using NEO personality traits questionnaire. Also, a self-constructed checklist was used to investigate the drivers' unsafe behaviors. Information on drivers' biorhythm was analyzed by Natural Biorhythm software version 3.2. The relationship between demographic characteristics, personality traits and biorhythm were examined by T-Test, One-way ANOVA, correlation coefficient and Chi square tests. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to investigate the factors influencing the incidence of unsafe behaviors.Results:28.6% of participants have experienced critical days in their biorhythm cycles. Also the mean percentage of unsafe behavior was 54.08 ± 11.91 among the subjects of the study. Significantly negative correlations were observed between each personality factor and the percentage of unsafe behaviors. Also, there was a significant relationship between percentage of derivers' unsafe behaviors and the general cycle of biorhythm (having at least one critical day in each of the cycles).Conclusions:Taking the measures including selection of low-risk traffic routes in the critical days and considering the personality traits at the time of employment could be effective in reducing the unsafe behaviors and accidents.

الأمن الفكري وعلاقته بالسمات الشخصية لدى الطلبة الموهوبين في مدينة جدة بالمملكة العربية السعودية

هدفت الدراسة الحالية إلى التعرف على مستوى الامن الفکري وعلاقته بالسمات الشخصية لدى الطلبة الموهوبين في مدينة جدة بالمملکة العربية السعودية سواء لدى الطلبة في المرحلة المتوسطة والمرحلة الثانوية، ولتحقيق أهداف الدراسة تم تطبيق الدراسة على عينة بلغت (125) طالبا من الطلبة الموهوبين، وتم استخدام مقياس الزهراني (2016) للأمن الفکري ومقياس نيو لقياس السمات الشخصية والذي قام بتقنينه عامر جبريل المرابحة على الطلبة الجامعيين في الاردن، وتم التحقق من خصائصهما السيکوماترية، توصلت نتائج الدراسة إلى ان الطلبة في المرحلة المتوسطة والثانوية يتمتعون بمستوى مرتفع من الامن الفکري في الدرجة الکلية وفي معظم الابعاد، وإلى أن اعلى السمات لدى الطلبة في المرحلة المتوسطة کان الانفتاحية ثم الانبساطية ثم الموافقة ثم العصابية بينما جاء في المرحلة الثانوية اعلى السمات الشخصية هي الموافقة ثم الانبساطية ثم الانفتاحية ثم العصابية، وکان هناک بشکل عام علاقة بين السمات الشخصية والامن الفکري حيث يزداد الامن الفکري مع سمات الانبساطية والانفتاحية والموافقة ويقل مع العصابية، وبناء على نتائج الدراسة خرجت الدراسة ببعض التوصيات منها الاهتمام بالامن الفکري ومراقبة الطلبة ذوي السمات العصابية لأنهم معرضون للتطرف الفکري. The current study aimed at finding out the level of ideational safety and its relationship with the traits of personality among both intermediate and secondary gifted students in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The study was conducted on a sample of (125) gifted students using the Ideational Safety Scale of Al-Zahrani (2016) and NEO personality traits scale which was standardized by A'amer Al-Marabheh on college students of Jordan. The psychometric properties of both scales were tested and approved. The findings indicated that the students in intermediate and secondary schools were of high level of ideational safety in total score and in most of dimensions. It was found that the dominant dimensions of the intermediate gifted students were openness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism respectively, while the dominant dimension of the secondary school gifted students was agreeableness followed by extraversion, openness, and neuroticism respectively. It was also found that there is a relationship between those traits and the level of ideational safety in general; ideational safety level increases with extraversion, openness, and agreeableness and decreases with neuroticism. Depending on findings, the study results recommend to take care of the ideational safety specially with those who have neuroticism traits as they are more vulnerable to ideational extremeness.

Trajectories of Psychological Adaptation to Marital Breakup after a Long-Term Marriage

Background: Marital dissolution is known to be among the most stressful life events with long-reaching negative consequences on individuals' lives. A limitation in research to date is that most studies have focused on the impact of marital disruption on well-being outcomes in younger adults. Furthermore, although population-based studies on divorce document a broad range of negative effects, more fine-grained analyses reveal a large heterogeneity in people's adjustment, which is still not well understood. Objective: The aim was to explore trajectories of psychological adaptation to marital breakup after a long-term marriage, and to examine variables accounting for recovery or chronicity in terms of intrapersonal resources (personality, trait resilience, and personal growth), relationship variables (satisfaction with ex-relationship, length of marriage, and time since divorce), and sociodemographic variables (age, gender, and financial situation). Methods: Latent transition analysis is used to examine the course of psychological adaptation (i.e., depressive symptoms, life satisfaction, hopelessness, mourning, and subjective health) to divorce over 2 years among 5 profiles of 308 divorcees (mean age: 55.6 years; average duration of former marriage: 23.62 years). We present two larger groups of individuals, one of which adapted very well (‘resilients', 29%) and the other quite well (‘average copers', 49%), as well as three groups with major difficulties (‘vulnerables', 6%; ‘malcontents', 12%, and ‘resigned', 4%). In a second step, the differences between transition patterns were explored on the basis of the distal variables (i.e., intrapersonal resources, relationship variables, and sociodemographics). Results: Although the probability of upward changes was higher for those individuals with lower adaptation at time point 1, only a small number of individuals made an upward change from the maladapted to the well-adapted groups throughout the 2 years. The groups of copers and resilients remained stable in their psychological adaptation. The most consistent results related to upward changes were intrapersonal resources, namely the NEO personality traits and trait resilience. Conclusion: The majority of individuals divorcing after a long-term marriage adapt successfully over time. Adaptation trajectories depend primarily on intrapersonal resources. However, a minority of divorcees exhibit enduring difficulties. Knowledge about the diversity of these trajectories of vulnerability could be of great help for designing psychological interventions to better tackle this critical life event.

Behavior Genetics Association 45th Annual Meeting Abstracts.

The first genetic variants associated with neuroticism were identified in a meta-analysis of genome-wide association (GWA) results based on 1000Genomes imputation in 63,661 participants from 29 discovery cohorts and 9786 participants from a replication cohort. Participants came from Europe, the United States or Australia (Van den Berg et al. Behav Genet 2014; de Moor et al. in press). Polygenic scores based on the meta-analysis of neuroticism in 27 cohorts (removing data from NTR and NESDA) significantly predicted neuroticism and MDD in NTR and NESDA. Here we extend the polygenic score prediction to other traits hypothesized to show genetic overlap with a higher neuroticism (anxiety, borderline personality disorder, migraine, smoking), with lower neuroticism (e.g. exercise) or to be independent of neuroticism (other NEO personality traits, alcohol use).

Follow-Up Prediction of Personality Types A and B Based on Neo Personality Traits

The current paper was aimed at prediction of follow-up of personality types A and B based on Neo personality traits. Participants in the present article included 100 people referring to diet centers in Tankabon who were selected by simple random sampling method. Neo personality characteristics questionnaire and McCrae and Costa questionnaire (1985) and the Personality types A and B questionnaire by Burn Reuter were used. Findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between personality types A and B Scores and Neo personality characteristics components at the 0/05 level and the latter, i.e. Neo personality characteristics components would predict 65/8% of the personality types A and B variations. Also, results of variance analysis indicate significance of this prediction and from among the Neo personality characteristics components; the component of conscientiousness contributed most to prediction of personality types A and B.

2906 – Relationship of job-related stress to the big five personality factors among personnel in shaid beheshti hospitalin yasuj, iran

Introduction and aim Job-related stress is considered a main factor to cause illness resulting in increaseing nurses’ absence from work. This study investigated the relationship of job-related stress in nursing career to the big five personality factors in personnel in Shahid Beheshti hospital in Yasuj, Iran. Methodology A correlative study was conducted with statistical population of all nursing personnel in Shahid Beheshti hospital in Yasuj. 83 nurses working in the hospital were randomly selected to form the statistical sample. Findings Results revealed no significant positive link between Neo personality traits and job-related stress, death-related stress, conflict with doctors, problems with colleagues, problems with supervisors, amount of work, lack of confidence in treatments, patient and their families -related stress and discrimination-related stress whereas a significant positive relationship between the lack of adequately emotional intelligence and neuroticism- two neo personality factors- (P = 018 and R = 259)was observed. Results of regression analysis indicated that neuroticism could only predict one of the job-related stress (i.e. lack of adequately emotional intelligence) (β = 259). This variable explained only 0.05% variance of nurses’ job-related stress. Also, no prediction could be made by considering factors such as introversion-extroversion, openness, dutifulness as associated with job-related stress in nurses while agreeability could affect the prediction of problems with colleagues-related stress(β = 364),which determined 12% of total variance. Conclusion Results have shown that nurses’ score is at the higher level than mean regarding stress related to lack of confidence in treatments, which can be mitigated through workshops and scheduled and applicable training programs.

A genome-wide linkage study of individuals with high scores on NEO personality traits

The NEO-Five-Factor Inventory divides human personality traits into five dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness and agreeableness. In this study, we sought to identify regions harboring genes with large effects on the five NEO personality traits by performing genome-wide linkage analysis of individuals scoring in the extremes of these traits (>90th percentile). Affected-only linkage analysis was performed using an Illumina 6K linkage array in a family-based study, the Erasmus Rucphen Family study. We subsequently determined whether distinct, segregating haplotypes found with linkage analysis were associated with the trait of interest in the population. Finally, a dense single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping array (Illumina 318K) was used to search for copy number variations (CNVs) in the associated regions. In the families with extreme phenotype scores, we found significant evidence of linkage for conscientiousness to 20p13 (rs1434789, log of odds (LOD)=5.86) and suggestive evidence of linkage (LOD >2.8) for neuroticism to 19q, 21q and 22q, extraversion to 1p, 1q, 9p and12q, openness to 12q and 19q, and agreeableness to 2p, 6q, 17q and 21q. Further analysis determined haplotypes in 21q22 for neuroticism (P-values = 0.009, 0.007), in 17q24 for agreeableness (marginal P-value = 0.018) and in 20p13 for conscientiousness (marginal P-values = 0.058, 0.038) segregating in families with large contributions to the LOD scores. No evidence for CNVs in any of the associated regions was found. Our findings imply that there may be genes with relatively large effects involved in personality traits, which may be identified with next-generation sequencing techniques.

Personality Traits and Drug Usage among Addicts

This research has been performed to investigate the relationships between the personality traits and drug usage among the addicted society members. 200 people took part in the present investigation. They were selected in clusters at random from among addicted communities who referred to the centers for stopping addiction and answered Neo personality traits questionnaires and the questionnaire for drug usage withdrawal. Resulted data were analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficient and simultaneous regression. The results of the research indicate that conscientiousness has the highest correlation (P<0.01, r= -063), of course personality traits of extroversion (P<0.01, r=-0.51), neurosis orientation (P<0.01, r=0.43), and compatibility (P<0.01, r=-0.43) with the use of drugs, But openness to experience has no correlations with the drug usage. Also, the results of analyzing regression indicates that the differentials of extroversion, conscientiousness explain (P<o.001)0.56 of variance of drug usage. According to the increase in the number of addicts, dangerous drugs and frequent returns among the addicts, identifying dangerous factors and critical prerequisites of identifying addiction decreases the range of its dangers.

Still Stable after All These Years? Personality Stability Theory Revisited

Costa and McCrae maintain that personality is basically stable after age 30. Other researchers, however, find that personality tends to change over time and that personality stability depends on the stability of the social environment and the instruments used to test personality stability and change. A meta-analysis of 206 personality stability coefficients reported in the literature fails to support personality stability theory. Personality tends to be less stable if the retest interval is large, if age at first measurement is low or over 50, and if a change in individual aspects of personality rather than overall personality is measured. Moreover, studies assessing any of the big five NEO personality traits and studies by Costa, McCrae, and colleagues tend to find higher personality stability coefficients. It is suggested that personality stability and change cannot be studied meaningfully without simultaneously examining stability and change in the social environment.