Nematicidal Effect Research Articles

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain BaNCT02: An antagonist with multiple mechanisms of action against Meloidogyne incognita

AbstractBacillus species are among the most studied and commercially exploited biocontrol agents of plant‐parasitic nematodes. These antagonists may control nematodes by producing toxic or repellent substances, inducing systemic resistance in plants and disrupting nematode chemotaxis. Understanding the mechanism of action of antagonists increases the likelihood of success for microbiological nematicides under field conditions. Therefore, the objective of this work was to elucidate the mechanisms of action of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain BaNCT02 against Meloidogyne incognita. We assessed the potential of this strain for forming biofilm in roots and producing volatile and non‐volatile toxic substances. BaNCT02 did not induce systemic resistance in tomato plants against M. incognita. Scanning electron microscopy and chemotaxis analyses revealed that the bacteria form a biofilm on soybean roots and 67% of second‐stage juveniles of M. incognita are repelled by common bean roots treated with the antagonist. Additionally, BaNCT02 produces substances with toxic effects against eggs and juveniles of M. incognita, including volatile organic compounds such as 2‐undecanone and 2‐heptanone, as well as non‐volatile metabolites like proteases and chitinases. The suppressive effect of these substances on hatching and mortality of juveniles varied from approximately 70% to more than 90%. We concluded that B. amyloliquefaciens BaNCT02 forms a biofilm on root surfaces and produces volatile and non‐volatile metabolites with nematicidal and repellent effects against M. incognita.

Evaluation of the Nematicidal Effect of Some Essential Oils On Meloidogyne javanica Under in vitro and in vivo Conditions

Evaluation of the Nematicidal Effect of Some Essential Oils On Meloidogyne javanica Under in vitro and in vivo Conditions

Biocontrol potential of nicotinamide from Arachis hypogaea roots against Meloidogyne incognita

Root knot nematode disease is a global problem that causes significant economic losses to cash crops annually, and Meloidogyne incognita is the most destructive threat. The urgent need for reliable biocontrol agents is evident. This study evaluated the nematicidal effects of various tissue extracts from Arachis hypogaea, a non-host plant of M. incognita. Subsequently, the metabolic changes in peanut roots induced by M. incognita were analyzed, and the in vitro biological activity of differential metabolites were tested. The results indicated that peanut root extracts showed the highest inhibiting effect on M. incognita, the LC50 values were 18.54 mg/mL, 11.58 mg/mL, and 8.05 mg/mL after treated 24, 36, and 48 hours, respectively. Additionally, it was found that M. incognita infestation induced distinct metabolic changes in peanut roots. Among the differential metabolites, nicotinamide exhibited strong nematicidal effects on M. incognita, and the corrected mortality of second-stage juveniles and hatching inhibition of eggs could reach 99.65% and 95.90%, respectively at a concentration of 25 mg/mL. In conclusion, nicotinamide manifested distinctive advantages as a novel nematicide for the potential applications in sustainable agriculture.

Nematicidal and Insecticidal Compounds from the Laurel Forest Endophytic Fungus Phyllosticta sp.

The search for natural product-based biopesticides from endophytic fungi is an effective tool to find new solutions. In this study, we studied a pre-selected fungal endophyte, isolate YCC4, from the paleoendemism Persea indica, along with compounds present in the extract and the identification of the insect antifeedant and nematicidal ones. The endophyte YCC4 was identified as Phyllosticta sp. by molecular analysis. The insect antifeedant activity was tested by choice bioassays against Spodoptera littoralis, Myzus persicae, and Rhopalosiphum padi, and the in vitro and in vivo mortality was tested against the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica. Since the extract was an effective insect antifeedant, a strong nematicidal, and lacked phytotoxicity on tomato plants, a comprehensive chemical study was carried out. Two new metabolites, metguignardic acid (4) and (-)-epi-guignardone I (14), were identified along the known dioxolanones guignardic acid (1), ethyl guignardate (3), guignardianones A (5), C (2), D (7), and E (6), phenguignardic acid methyl ester (8), the meroterpenes guignardone A (9) and B (10), guignarenone B (11) and C (12), (-)-guignardone I (13), and phyllomeroterpenoid B (15). Among these compounds, 1 and 4 were effective antifeedants against S. littoralis and M. persicae, while 2 was only active on the aphid M. persicae. The nematicidal compounds were 4, 7, and 8. This is the first report on the insect antifeedant or nematicidal effects of these dioxolanone-type compounds. Since the insect antifeedant and nematicidal activity of the Phyllosticta sp. extract depend on the presence of dioxolanone components, future fermentation optimizations are needed to promote the biosynthesis of these compounds instead of meroterpenes.

Coffee and its waste repel second-stage juveniles of Meloidogyne species and inhibit their infection of lettuce roots

Summary Second-stage juveniles (J2) of Meloidogyne species are known to be repelled by several compounds. Although such repellents could serve for nematode control, effective, practical and sustainable repellents are unknown. The present study tested instant coffee crystals (ICC) and a methanolic extract of spent coffee grounds (SCG) for their repellency against, and infection inhibition of, J2 of Meloidogyne species on agar plate assays. J2 of Meloidogyne javanica, M. hapla and M. marylandi were repelled by the SCG extract and ICC. When ICC were mixed with chemical J2 attractants, their attractiveness to M. javanica J2 was reduced or abolished. ICC and the SCG extract deposited near lettuce seedling roots on the agar plate reduced the number of M. javanica, M. incognita, and M. hapla J2 attracted to the root tips by 84.3-96.4%, decreased infection rates by 37.5-75.0%, and increased root length 1.3- to 2.8-fold compared to seedlings grown on the non-treated side of the same plate. Thoroughly mixing the SCG extract into the plated agar reduced the number of J2 of the three species attracted to lettuce root tips by 46.7-98.6% and the infection rate by 87.5-95.8%, and increased the root length of the seedlings up to 2.8-fold, although no nematicidal effect was found. The same SCG-treated agar plate reduced the attraction of M. javanica J2 to a chemical attractant. The results suggest that ICC and the SCG extract have repellent and infection-inhibitory activity against Meloidogyne J2 and are potential control means for Meloidogyne species.

Metabolic engineering of a 1,8-cineole synthase from Nicotiana suaveolens, confers enhanced resistance to Meloidogyne incognita by synergistic blend of root volatiles

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) pose a significant threat to global crop production. Given the detrimental effects of fumigants and conventional chemical nematicides, there is a growing interest in exploring biological nematicides as a promising alternative for pest control. In this study, we present data demonstrating the role of root volatiles in enhancing resistance against Meloidogyne incognita (M. incognita) in tobacco plants overexpressing NsCINS (NsCINS-OE). The NsCINS gene, derived from Nicotiana suaveolens, encodes a 1,8-cineole synthase induced by M. incognita infection and predominantly localized to the chloroplast. The roots of NsCINS-OE plants exhibited deterrent properties to infective second-stage juveniles (J2s) of M. incognita. Moreover, NsCINS-OE plants showed enhanced resistance against M. incognita, as evidenced by reduced gall numbers and egg mass counts compared to wild type (WT) plants. Notably, the emission of root volatiles from NsCINS-OE plants, including 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, terpinene-4-ol, and furfural, was significantly higher than that of WT. In vitro assays confirmed that a mixture of commercially available volatile organic compounds (VOCs) had a deterrent effect on infective J2s. Furthermore, the natural root volatiles emitted by NsCINS-OE plants effectively enhanced tobacco's resistance against M. incognita. Our findings provide valuable insights into the role of NsCINS in volatile-based defense and highlight the potential of metabolic engineering of monoterpene synthase genes to control M. incognita by enhancing root volatile emissions.

In vitro evaluation of the anthelmintic potential of proteases from garlic peel (Allium sativum)

The garlic peel (Allium sativum) is rich in protease-type enzymes, which have already demonstrated their anthelmintic activity. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the potential use of proteases from garlic peel in the in vitro control of Moniezia expansa eggs and trichostrongylid. The prepared extract was precipitated and dialyzed, and its proteolytic activity was evaluated. Subsequently, three experimental groups were prepared: one containing the active extract, another with the denatured extract, and a control group. In vitro assays were then conducted to assess the effect of the extract on M. expansa eggs and trichostrongylid (Haemonchus spp. and Trichostrongylus spp.). There was an increase in enzymatic activity from 4.39 U/mL to 7.32 U/mL after precipitation and dialysis. In vitro experiments confirmed the nematicidal and ovicidal efficacy of garlic peel proteases, with an average reduction of L3 in the experimental groups, in comparison with the control, were: 9,16 % for the denatured extract and 55% for the active extract and 27.69% for M. expansa eggs. This is the first report of the nematicidal and ovicidal effect of these parasites using enzymes from garlic peel. Further research should explore the potential of garlic waste enzymes to create products that contribute to parasite control.

Evaluation of the nematicidal and enzymatic activity of Pleurotus djamor on Trichostrongylus spp. and Strongyloides papillosus

ABSTRACT Parasitic gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) cause diseases that are a major challenge to livestock production. Chemical control is the most widely used method, but it has many economic and environmental problems. This study was to evaluate in vitro the nematicidal and enzymatic activity of Pleurotus djamor against Trichostrongylus spp., and Strongyloides papillosus. The fungus was cultivated in a solid medium composed of wheat seeds for 25 days. The enzyme extraction was then performed using distilled water in the ratio of 1:5. Subsequently, by means of filtration and then centrifugation, the cell-free crude extract (CFCE) was obtained. Proteolytic activity was measured at pH 5 using the caseinolytic assay. The nematophagous assay of the P. djamor on the infective larvae (L3) was performed for 6 h. The nematicidal effect of the CFCE (active and denatured) was analysed over a period of 48 h. The CFCE showed proteolytic activity of 8.9 ± 0,5 U mL−1. P. djamor reduced the number of L3 by 75% (p < 0.01). The active CFCE showed a statistical difference compared to the control and the denatured (p < 0.01). On the other hand, there was no significant difference between the denatured group and the control group (without enzymes). The percentage reduction of L3 was 57%. This result suggests that the nematicidal action occurred mainly due to the activity of the proteases present in the CFCE. This study reports for the first time the applicability of proteases produced by P. djamor in the biochemical control of GINs, which could become an alternative biopesticide in the future.

In vitro nematicidal efficacy of brassica-derived isothiocyanates against the root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus penetrans

Summary Brassica plants naturally produce glucosinolates as secondary metabolites hydrolysed to biocidal isothiocyanates (ITCs). As such, they have the potential for nematode management through a strategy known as biofumigation. Pratylenchus penetrans causes significant yield losses in many important crops. Understanding the relative impact of different ITCs on the motility and mortality of this nematode species could provide some insights into the selection of relevant brassica biofumigants. The effects of 3.125, 6.25, 12.5, 25, and 50 μg ml−1 of pure Allyl, 2-Phenylethyl and Benzyl ITCs on the motility and mortality of P. penetrans were evaluated in laboratory in vitro assays. Motility was assessed after incubating the nematodes in ITCs for 24, 48 and 72 h with distilled water as a negative control. Motile and non-motile nematodes were counted. After motility assessment at 72 h, nematodes were rinsed and incubated in water for 48 h, after which live and dead nematodes were counted. Nematodes were considered dead if they remained non-motile after probing with a picking needle. Nematode motility and mortality were significantly affected by the type of ITC, concentration and time of exposure. The number of non-motile nematodes increased with increasing concentration and time of exposure across all tested ITCs. The ED50 values (concentration required to cause 50% non-motility) of Allyl, 2-Phenylethyl and Benzyl were 37.4, 12.8 and 8.6 μg ml−1 after 24 h exposure. The ITC with potentially the greatest nematicidal effect was Benzyl (LD50 = 3.2 μg ml−1), followed by 2-Phenylethyl (LD50 = 5.2 μg ml−1), and Allyl (LD50 = 9.9 μg ml−1). The LD50 of all ITCs were not different from the ED50 after 72 h, meaning the effects of ITCs could be considered irreversible. This study suggests that brassica biofumigants that produce Benzyl, Allyl and 2-Phenylethyl ITCs are promising candidates for biofumigation of P. penetrans.

Identification of bioactive compounds in cavalcade leaves for nematicidal activity against Hirschmanniella mucronata and Meloidogyne graminicola using LC-QTOF-MS

Hirschmanniella mucronata and Meloidogyne graminicola are the main plant-parasitic nematodes found in paddy fields in Thailand causing significant rice production yield losses. Although these nematodes are found widely in fields, an effective management method has not been documented. Here, we examined the nematicidal effects of different cavalcade leaf ages (1-, 2- and 3-month-old), used as aqueous extracts and soil amendments, on H. mucronata and M. graminicola. In vitro tests evidenced maximum mortality of H. mucronata (55.6–60.0%) in 50 mg ml−1 extract from all leaf ages, while mortality (65.9%) and hatchability (67.0%) of M. graminicola second-stage juveniles were observed in 50 mg ml−1 extract from 1-month-old leaves only. Moreover, aqueous extracts of cavalcade showed a repellent effect on both nematodes. Similarly, greenhouse experiments showed a significant reduction of H. mucronata population densities and reproduction of M. graminicola in soil amended with 0.5 and 1.0% (w/w) from each leaf age. LC-QTOF-MS analysis determined that three bioactive compounds, including quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol, are associated with the nematicidal activity of cavalcade against H. mucronata and M. graminicola. The information derived from this study indicates that the leaves of cavalcade are a source of promising phytonematicidals. This is the first study to assess and document its potential for nematicidal activity against H. mucronata and M. graminicola in Thailand. However, further research is needed to evaluate their efficacy under paddy field conditions.

Characterization of finger millet extracts and evaluation of their nematicidal efficacy and plant growth promotion potential.

Plant-parasitic nematodes pose a significant threat to finger millet crops, potentially causing yield reduction of up to 70%. Extracts derived from finger millet varieties contain potent bioactive compounds that can mitigate nematode damage and promote plant growth. This study aimed at isolating and characterizing bioactive compounds from the finger millet varieties Ikhulule, Okhale-1, and U-15; evaluating the impact of Ikhulule and U-15 extracts on the mortality of the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus vandenbergae; assessing the growth promotion effects of Ikhulule and U-15 extracts on the finger millet variety Okhale-1; and determining the efficacy of these extracts in managing plant-parasitic nematodes under greenhouse conditions. Extracts were obtained from both leaves and roots and tested invitro for nematode mortality and invivo for growth promotion and nematode control. The results showed that finger millet extracts exhibited strong nematicidal properties invitro, achieving a mortality rate of up to 98% against P. vandenbergae nematodes. Applying these extracts to finger millet shoots significantly reduced nematode populations in both soil and roots and decreased the reproductive factor to below one (1), indicating an effective nematode control. The study attributes the enhanced nematicidal effects of finger millet extracts to their bioactive compounds, particularly dodecanoic acid, phytol, 1,1,4a-trimethyl-6-decahydro naphthalene, 2,3-dihydro-benzofuran, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol and ethyl ester, and hexadecanoic acid. These findings suggest that finger millet-derived extracts offer a natural solution for nematode management and broader agronomic benefits, ultimately contributing to overall plant health and productivity.

Antagonistic Efficacy of Symbiotic Bacterium Xenorhabdus sp. SCG against Meloidogyne spp.

The inhabitation and parasitism of root-knot nematodes (RKNs) can be difficult to control, as its symptoms can be easily confused with other plant diseases; hence, identifying and controlling the occurrence of RKNs in plants remains an ongoing challenge. Moreover, there are only a few biological agents for controlling these harmful nematodes. In this study, Xenorhabdus sp. SCG isolated from entomopathogenic nematodes of genus Steinernema was evaluated for nematicidal effects under in vitro and greenhouse conditions. The cell-free filtrates of strain SCG showed nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne species J2s, with mortalities of > 88% at a final concentration of 10%, as well as significant nematicidal activity against the three other genera of plant-parasitic nematodes in a dose-dependent manner. Thymine was isolated as active compounds by assay-guided fractionation and showed high nematicidal activity against M. incognita. Greenhouse experiments suggested that cell-free filtrates of strain SCG efficiently controlled the nematode population in M. incognita-infested tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L., cv. Rutgers). In addition, a significant increase in host plant growth was observed after 45 days of treatment. To our knowledge, this is the first to demonstrate the nematicidal activity spectrum of isolated Xenorhabdus species and their application to S. lycopersicum L., cv. Rutgers under greenhouse conditions. Xenorhabdus sp. SCG could be a promising biological nematicidal agent with plant growth-enhancing properties.

Effectiveness of Some Commercial Nematicides on Both Root-Knot and Lesion Nematodes Parasitizing Date Palms in Egypt

Effectiveness of Some Commercial Nematicides on Both Root-Knot and Lesion Nematodes Parasitizing Date Palms in Egypt

Effect of Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Leaf and Seed Extracts Prepared Using Different Solvents on Root-Knot Nematode

Objective: The nematicidal effect of milk thistle leaves and seeds prepared with different solvents on Meloidogyne incognita was investigated. Materials and Methods: Acetone, ethanol and distilled water were used. The in vitro was carried out in 6 cm petri dishes. The extractions were studied with 500 and 1000 μg/ml (ppm). The in vitro and pot experiments designed random plots with 5 replications for each extraction, solvent and concentration. Four hundred second stage juvenile larvae (J2) were used as inoculum and dead individuals were counted after 48 hours. Five days after transplantation, nematode inoculation was carried out with 500 J2 per pot. After 24 hours, 30 ml of the solution was applied to the soil at 1000 ppm concentration. The experiment was terminated for 50 days. Then, gall and egg mass counts were made. Results: In vitro, the mortality rate at 1000 ppm was found to be similar in acetone (78.0%) and ethanol (80.8%) solvents in leaf extraction, while the highest was detected in ethanol (94.0%) in the seed extract. In distilled water solvent, 68.0% mortality was determined in the leaf extract and 62.2% mortality in the seed extract. There was no statistically significant difference between the leaf and seed extracts in number of galls and egg masses. No statistical difference could be determined between the solvents in the number of egg masses in seed extraction. While the number of galls in the leaf extract was found to be higher than in acetone (8.8 unit/root) and ethanol (8.0 unit/root) in distilled water (18.0 unit/root) and the difference between them was found to be significant, no statistically significant difference in the number of egg mass between the solvents. Conclusion: It was observed that all solvents of the leaf and seed extract suppressed galls and egg masses by more than 80% compared to the control.

Grass-Endophyte Interactions and Their Associated Alkaloids as a Potential Management Strategy for Plant Parasitic Nematodes.

Claviceptaceous endophytic fungi in the genus Epichloë mostly form a symbiotic relationship with cool-season grasses. Epichloë spp. are capable of producing bioactive alkaloids such as peramines, lolines, ergot alkaloids, and indole-diterpenes, which protect the host plant from herbivory by animals, insects, and nematodes. The host also benefits from enhanced tolerance to abiotic stresses, such as salt, drought, waterlogging, cold, heavy metals, and low nitrogen stress. The bioactive alkaloids produced can have both direct and indirect effects towards plant parasitic nematodes. Direct interaction with nematodes' motile stages can cause paralysis (nematostatic effect) or death (nematicidal effect). Indirectly, the metabolites may induce host immunity which inhibits feeding and subsequent nematode development. This review highlights the different mechanisms through which this interaction and the metabolites produced have been explored in the suppression of plant parasitic nematodes and also how the specific interactions between different grass genotypes and endophyte strains result in variable suppression of different nematode species. An understanding of the different grass-endophyte interactions and their successes and failures in suppressing various nematode species is essential to enable the proper selection of grass-endophyte combinations to identify the alkaloids produced, concentrations required, and determine which nematodes are sensitive to which specific alkaloids.

Nematicidal effect of Canavalia ensiformis extract and its potentiation with nanoparticles against Meloidogyne incognita

The nematicidal effect of Canavalia ensiformis seed extract combined with silicon dioxide nanoparticles was evaluated on second instar juveniles of Meloidogyne incognita, a phytopathogenic nematode that affects tomato crops. In the first experiment, concentrations of the extract were tested at 2, 4, 6, 6, 8 and 10%, observing that the most effective concentration was 10%, with 90% mortality at 24 hours. In the second experiment, concentrations of the extract at 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0% were combined with silicon dioxide nanoparticles at 0.06, 0.08, 0.10, 0.12 and 0.14%, where the most effective was 1.5% extract with 0.14% nanoparticles, which showed a mortality of 94% at 72 hours. These results suggest that the combination of C. ensiformis extract with NP's can be a strategy for the management of M. incognita in tomato crops

Synthesis of Nano Sulfur/Chitosan-Copper Complex and Its Nematicidal Effect against Meloidogyne incognita In Vitro and on Coffee Pots.

Sulfur is one of the inorganic elements used by plants to develop and produce phytoalexin to resist certain diseases. This study reported a method for preparing a material for plant disease resistance. Sulfur nanoparticles (SNPs) stabilized in the chitosan-Cu2+ (CS-Cu2+) complex were synthesized by hydrolysis of Na2S2O3 in an acidic medium. The obtained SNPs/CS-Cu2+ complex consisting of 0.32% S, 4% CS, and 0.7% Cu (w/v), contained SNPs with an average size of ~28 nm as measured by transmission electron microscopy images. The X-ray diffraction pattern of the SNPs/CSCu2+ complex showed that SNPs had orthorhombic crystal structures. Interaction between SNPs and the CS-Cu2+ complex was also investigated by ultraviolet-visible. Results in vitro nematicidal effect of materials against Meloidogyne incognita showed that SNPs/CS-Cu2+ complex was more effective in killing second-stage juveniles (J2) nematodes and inhibiting egg hatching than that of CS and CS-Cu2+ complex. The values of LC50 in killing J2 nematodes and EC50 in inhibiting egg hatching of SNPs/CS-Cu2+ complex were 75 and 51 mg/l, respectively. These values were lower than those of CS and the CS-Cu2+ complex. The test results on the nematicidal effect against M. incognita on coffee pots showed that the SNPs/CS-Cu2+ complex was 100% effective at a concentration of 150 mg/l. Therefore, the SNPs/CS-Cu2+ complex could be considered as a biochemical material with potential for agricultural applications to control root-knot nematodes.

In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic effect of essential oil obtained from Thymus capitatus flowers against Haemonchus contortus and Heligmosomoides polygyrus

Sheep haemonchosis is a disease that causes serious losses in livestock production, particularly with the increase of cases of anthelmintic resistance around the world. This justifies the urgent need of alternative solutions. The aim of this study was to determine the chemical profile, in vitro, and, in vivo, anthelmintic properties of Thymus capitatus essential oil. To evaluate the, in vitro, anthelmintic activity of the T. capitatus EO on Haemonchus contortus, two tests were used: egg hatch assay (EHA) and adult worm motility (AWM) assay. The nematicidal effect of this oil was evaluated, in vivo, in mice infected artificially with Heligmosomoides polygyrus using faecal egg count reduction (FECR) and total worm count reduction (TWCR). Chromatographic characterization of T.capitatus composition using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) demonstrated the presence of carvacrol (81.16%), as the major constituents. The IC50 values obtained was 1.9 mg/mL in the EHT. In the AWM assay; T. capitatus essential oil achieved 70.8% inhibition at 1 mg/mL after 8 h incubation. The in vivo, evaluation on H. polygyrus revealed a significant nematicidal effect 7 days post-treatment by inducing 49.5% FECR and 64.5% TWCR, using the highest dose (1600 mg/kg). The results of present study, demonstrate that T.capitatus EO possess a significant anthelmintic properties. Furthermore, it could be an alternative source of anthelmintic agents against gastrointestinal infections caused by H. contortus.

Management of Root-Knot Nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) on Kiwifruit Seedlings using Different Plant Extracts, Biocontrol Agents, and Chemical Nematicides

Root-knot nematodes (RKN), (Meloidogyne spp.), are the major biotic factor responsible for the limiting production of Kiwifruit in Nepal including Kiwifruit orchard of Warm Temperate Horticulture Center, Nepal. Hence, there is a pressing demand for nematicides that are both easily accessible and cost-effective while being environmentally friendly. A screenhouse experiment was conducted in the Summer of 2023 with an objective to evaluate the effects of different plant extracts, bio-control agents, and chemical nematicides against RKN on Kiwifruit seedlings. The experiment was set up in a Completely Randomized Design with three replications and eight treatments which include the extracts of Allium sativum and Lantana camara, Trichoderma viride, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Cartap hydrochloride, Fosthiazate, Inoculated control and Uninoculated control. The results revealed that Trichoderma viride proved to be the most effective in reducing the nematode population, displaying a low root gall index of 3.11, a minimal reproductive factor of 0.24, and a high percentage of nematode control at 91.71%. It was also found to be efficient in promoting the growth parameters of Kiwifruit seedlings. Additionally, regression analysis exhibited a significantly positive interaction between root gall index and reproductive factor, while indicating a negative interaction between reproductive factor and growth parameters. Therefore, T. viride (@ 20 gm per 2000 cm3 of soil) should be soil drenched before the seedlings are transplanted into the main field for effective and sustainable management of RKN. Nevertheless, further research is needed to determine the efficacy of T. viride in infested roots of Kiwifruit trees in field condition of Kiwifruit orchard.

Enhancing nematicidal effect of prodigiosin via micro-encapsulation using chitosan as a novel carrier substance

Enhancing nematicidal effect of prodigiosin via micro-encapsulation using chitosan as a novel carrier substance