Negev Highlands Research Articles

Hypolith Distribution Within a Dewy Drainage Basin: Possible Link to Dew or Rather to Rain?

ABSTRACTThe water source of hypoliths is a matter of controversy, with some scholars advocating the role of nonrainfall water (NRW), principally dew or fog as the main water sources, while others maintain that it is rain. In the Negev Highlands, where lichens cover > 90% of the upper surfaces of cobblestones, hypoliths may also reside on the undersides of these cobblestones. In an attempt to evaluate the possible role of rain, dew and fog, the abundance, cover and chlorophyll content of the hypoliths on 10–20 cm × 5–10 cm cobblestones was measured at five slope locations at the hilltop (HT) and the upper parts of the north‐facing (NF), south‐facing (SF), east‐facing (EF) and west‐facing (WF) slopes, which were characterised by contrasting abiotic conditions. Within each slope location, 50 and 10 cobblestones were randomly, respectively, collected to evaluate the abundance and cover and to measure their chlorophyll content. In addition, field measurements were conducted to evaluate the ability of rain, dew and fog to wet the hypoliths. Our results indicate that (a) hypoliths were confined to cobblestones lying loosely on the ground; (b) while similar chlorophyll content characterised patches with hypoliths at all slope locations, their abundance and cover were the highest at NF and WF, followed by HT, with SF and EF exhibiting the lowest values; (c) our measurements did not show direct wetting by dew, fog or rain. We therefore suggest that distillation may be the main source of water. Our suggestion implies that a reduction in rain, but even more importantly, elevated nocturnal temperatures during the rainy period, may have a great negative effect on the hypolithic population.

Navigating the Wilderness: Early Bronze Age rectangular platforms in the central Negev Highlands

For well over a century, researchers exploring the Negev Highlands have noted the remains of large, impressive rectangular monuments dotting the landscape between the western border of Israel and the central Arava Valley. Archaeological surveys carried out by the Israel Antiquities Authority along the western border between 2010 and 2012 revealed a narrow corridor of these platforms, situated on the main road between Quseima (ancient Kadesh Barnea) in northern Sinai and the site of Be'erotayim / Mizpe Ezuz. A number of these were excavated as well as platforms in the site of Rosh Maʽale Zadok (the head of the Zadok Ascent) in Mizpe Ramon in 2007. The results of these excavations point to their construction in the Early Bronze Age, possibly the Early Bronze Age IB or II/III period and we interpret their function as navigation platforms on trails connecting the Nile Delta in Egypt and the copper mines of Faynan in the central Arava as suggested by M. Haiman in 2006.

Standing at the crossroads — ‘En Ḥaẓeva in the Early Iron Age IIA

This paper presents, for the first time, an analysis of the early Iron Age IIA occupation at ‘En Ḥaẓeva. A series of radiocarbon measurements from short-lived samples obtained from the site’s earlier occupation levels (Strata VIII–VII) were all dated to the 10th century BCE. It is noteworthy, that Stratum VII occupies the second half of the 10th century BCE exclusively, with its final phase around 900 BCE. Fixing the site’s absolute chronology has far-reaching implications, enabling the placement of the early Iron Age IIA settlement within the broader historical context. Situated c. 20 kilometres from the most significant copper industry centre in the Levant — Khirbet en-Nahas, ‘En Ḥaẓeva enjoyed a strategic location in the transport network of copper through the Negev Highlands and the Beer-Sheba Valley to the Mediterranean seaports. It is claimed that the economic prosperity related to copper production at Khirbet en-Nahas during the early Iron Age IIA was ‘En Ḥaẓeva’s raison d’être.

Cereal cultivation and storage by the Janabib Bedouin in the Negev Highlands, southern Israel (1917–1948)

This study focuses on the traditional methods used by the Janabib Bedouin tribe in the Negev Highlands to cultivate wheat and barley during the British Mandate period from 1917 to 1948. Despite the fact that this region receives only 90 mm of precipitation per year on average, and was located at a great distance from settlements and markets, the local Bedouin cultivated cereals by exploiting the ancient agricultural terraces from the Byzantine period which prevented runoff and distributed water over the agricultural plots. This research also found that the choice of which cereals to grow in different years, were determined by local climatic conditions. Thus, the Bedouin who lived in the Negev Highlands before 1948, developed specific adaptations in order to survive in these arid conditions.

Faynan, Nomads and the Western Negev in the Early Iron Age: A Critical Reappraisal

ABSTRACT The final report on the Edom Lowlands Regional Archaeology Project concludes that local nomadic tribes created a complex polity at early Iron Age Faynan, in southern Jordan, that was responsible for a radical shift in copper production to an industrial scale. Erez Ben-Yosef has subsequently used these conclusions as the key example in a theoretical argument about the social complexity – and, usually, archaeological invisibility – of nomadic societies. A review of the archaeological evidence from Faynan indicates that the sudden change at the beginning of the 10th century bce should not be attributed to local nomads. Evidence from the Wadi Fidan 40 cemetery – both material culture and chemical analysis of teeth – shows that its nomadic inhabitants did not actively participate in the copper industry. There is no evidence of a process of transition from nomadism to sedentarism at Faynan, and its architecture does not reflect any influence or antecedents in the archaeology of nomads. The evidence shows close material culture connections with the western Negev and the major site of Tel Masos. The scenario that best fits the evidence is that Masos took direct control of copper production at Faynan and developed it as an industrial site to exponentially increase the copper trade – Masos had the resources, technical skills, an architectural tradition, and connections to trade networks that the local nomads lacked, and which transformed Faynan. Hundreds of sites in the Negev Highlands were settled by pastoralists who found employment both in production and transport in the burgeoning copper industry. The industrial transformation of Faynan, along with the settlement of Tel Masos and the Negev Highlands sites, was short-lived, and lasted little more than a hundred years.

Nahal Zahal, an Early PPNB Site in the Northern Negev: A Preliminary Report on the First Excavation Season

Abstract. The site of Nahal Zahal is located in Ramat Hovav (northern Negev). A salvage excavation carried out in March 2020 revealed an Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B occupation (EPPNB; ca. 8600–8150 cal. BC), including at least one large, round structure with adjoining cells and installations, as well as a rich lithic assemblage. EPPNB evidence from the Negev is limited, including small hunter-gatherer occupations in and around the Negev Highlands (i.e., Abu Salem and Nahal Boqer) and campsites in the western Negev (i.e., Nahal Lavan 109). No radiometric dates are currently available for this phase in the region, and chronology is based on typological seriation. The excavations at Nahal Zahal provide invaluable information regarding EPPNB settlement and subsistence strategies. Exceptional preservation of organic material provides a unique opportunity to radiometrically date the occupation at the site and the EPPNB of the Negev in general.

Unprecedented yet gradual nature of first millennium CE intercontinental crop plant dispersal revealed in ancient Negev desert refuse.

Global agro-biodiversity has resulted from processes of plant migration and agricultural adoption. Although critically affecting current diversity, crop diffusion from Classical antiquity to the Middle Ages is poorly researched, overshadowed by studies on that of prehistoric periods. A new archaeobotanical dataset from three Negev Highland desert sites demonstrates the first millennium CE's significance for long-term agricultural change in Southwest Asia. This enables evaluation of the 'Islamic Green Revolution (IGR)' thesis compared to 'Roman Agricultural Diffusion (RAD)', and both versus crop diffusion during and since the Neolithic. Among the findings, some of the earliest aubergine (Solanum melongena) seeds in the Levant represent the proposed IGR. Several other identified economic plants, including two unprecedented in Levantine archaeobotany-jujube (Ziziphus jujuba/mauritiana) and white lupine (Lupinus albus)-implicate RAD as the greater force for crop migrations. Altogether the evidence supports a gradualist model for Holocene-wide crop diffusion, within which the first millennium CE contributed more to global agricultural diversity than any earlier period.

The enigmatic enrichment of potassium and magnesium in runoff and floodwater in the Negev: Do biocrusts hold the key?

Regardless of lithology and plant cover, chemical composition of floodwater in the Negev show a consistent enrichment in K+ and Mg2+ ions, which could not have been explained by the rock or clay minerals or (due to the scarcity of plants) by plant decomposition. Hypothesizing that rock-dwelling (lithobionts) or soil (loess)-dwelling biocrusts may shed light on the phenomena, we conducted sprinkling experiments in the Negev Highlands. Sprinkling was conducted on 4 types of lithobionts: cyanobacteria which inhabit the south-facing bedrock (ENC), epilithic lichens, inhabiting the inclined (EPIi) and the flat (EPIf) north-facing bedrocks, and endolithic lichens (ENL) inhabiting south-facing boulders. Additional sprinkling took place on two types of soil biocrusts, a mixed crust composed of cyanobacteria, lichens and mosses at the north-facing footslope and a cyanobacterial crust at the more xeric south-facing footslope. The runoff water (of 5 and for 4 plots for each lithobiont and soil biocrust type, respectively) was analyzed for the ionic composition of Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, NH4+, Cl−, SO42−, and NO3−, whereas HCO3− was calculated. In comparison to rainwater, all habitats (except for K+ in ENL) showed high enrichment ratios (ERs) in K+ and Mg2+, which, unlike the high ERs of the other ions (such as SO42− that may stem from gypsum dissolution), could not have been explained by the rock lithology, clay or dust composition. It is suggested that following wetting, K+, serving for osmoregulation of cells, is released by the crust organisms, being thus responsible for K+ enrichment, while chlorophyll degradation is responsible for Mg2+ enrichment. It is suggested that rock- and soil-dwelling microorganisms may explain K+ and Mg2+ enrichment in runoff and floodwater and subsequently in groundwater of the Negev, and possibly in other arid zones worldwide, affecting in turn the quality of irrigation and drinking water.

The effect of the water source on niche partioning of chlorolichens and cyanobacteria-implications for resilience?

Microclimate determines lichens and cyanobacteria distribution in the Negev, with lichens and cyanobacteria inhabit dewy and dewless habitats, respectively. Lichens experiences more frequent and extensive environmental fluctuations than cyanobacteria. The spatial partitioning of chlorolichens (eukaryotes) and cyanobacteria (prokaryotes) are intriguing, especially following recent intense search for extraterrestrial life. This is especially relevant for deserts, where both lithobionts are thought to use rain and dew but may differ in their resilience to environmental extremes and fluctuations. Following the different spatial distribution of lithobionts in a south-facing slope of the Negev Highlands (with cyanobacteria-inhabiting rocks and chlorolichen-inhabiting cobbles), measurements of temperature, non-rainfall water (NRW) and biomass were carried out within the drainage basin aiming to test the hypotheses that (i) cobble-inhabiting lichens may access more water (through NRW) and may be subjected to more extensive environmental fluctuations of temperature and water than bedrock-inhabiting cyanobacteria, and (ii) will therefore have a greater contribution to the ecosystem productivity. In contrast to cyanobacteria, cobble-inhabiting chlorolichens were found to access NRW (up to 0.20mm of daily amounts in comparison to < 0.04mm of the cyanobacteria) and to experience higher fluctuations of temperatures (up to 4.1°C higher and 5.3°C lower). With lichens and cyanobacteria inhabiting dewy and dewless habitats, respectively, NRW was found responsible for contributing 6.8-fold higher organic carbon to the lithobiontic community. At this site, chlorolichens experience more extensive environmental fluctuations than cyanobacteria, possibly indicating a higher tolerance for environmental fluctuations. These observations may assist in the interpretation of the abiotic conditions responsible for past or present lithobiontic life on Mars.

Environment, subsistence strategies and settlement seasonality in the Negev Highlands (Israel) during the Bronze and Iron Ages: The palynological evidence.

The Negev Highlands arid region (southern Levant) shows evidence of sharp settlement fluctuations, with several periods of strong human activity separated by centuries with no evidence of sedentary life. In this study, we used the palynological method in order to shed light on the region's demographic history in the Bronze and Iron Ages. Fifty-four samples of pollen were collected and analyzed from secure archaeological contexts in four Negev Highlands sites: Nahal Boqer 66, dated to the Early Bronze Age and Early Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 3200-2200 BCE); Ein Ziq, dated to the Early Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 2500-2200 BCE); Mashabe Sade, dated to the Intermediate Bronze Age (ca. 2500-2000 BCE); and Haroa, dated to the Iron Age IIA (ca. late 10th through 9th centuries BCE). Our study revealed no evidence of cereal cultivation, with some hints that the inhabitants' diets may have included plants gathered from the wild. Only one of the sites, Nahal Boqer 66, showed micro-indicators of animal dung remains, suggesting that the inhabitants herded animals. The palynological evidence did, however, emphasize that the livestock there were not fed or supplemented with agricultural by-products but rather grazed freely on wild vegetation. The pollen data also suggest that all four sites were occupied only during late winter and spring. The activity in the Negev Highlands during the third millennium BCE was probably related to the copper industry in the Arabah and to copper transportation to settled neighboring lands, especially Egypt. A relatively humid climate supported the trade through the Negev Highlands. Deterioration in both climate conditions and settlement activity was documented in the second half of the Intermediate Bronze Age.

Ancient DNA from a lost Negev Highlands desert grape reveals a Late Antiquity wine lineage

Recent excavations of Late Antiquity settlements in the Negev Highlands of southern Israel uncovered a society that established commercial-scale viticulture in an arid environment [D. Fuks et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 117, 19780-19791 (2020)]. We applied target-enriched genome-wide sequencing and radiocarbon dating to examine grapevine pips that were excavated at three of these sites. Our analyses revealed centuries long and continuous grape cultivation in the Southern Levant. The genetically diverse pips also provided clues to ancient cultivation strategies aimed at improving agricultural productivity and ensuring food security. Applying genomic prediction analysis, a pip dated to the eighth century CE was determined to likely be from a white grape, to date the oldest to be identified. In a kinship analysis, another pip was found to be descendant from a modern Greek cultivar and was thus linked with several popular historic wines that were once traded across the Byzantine Empire. These findings shed light on historical Byzantine trading networks and on the genetic contribution of Levantine varieties to the classic Aegean landscape.

The Archaeology and History of Rock-cut Cisterns and Open Water Reservoirs in the Negev Highlands

The Archaeology and History of Rock-cut Cisterns and Open Water Reservoirs in the Negev Highlands

When “the Sweet Gifts of Bacchus” Ended—New Archaeological Evidence for Settlement Changes and the Decline of Wine Production in Late Antique Southern Palestine

Based on the accumulated data from numerous excavations in the hinterland of Gaza and Ashkelon and the results of the comprehensive bioarchaeological research on Late Antique settlement and economy of the Negev Highlands, this article addresses the decline of the flourishing wine industry of southern Palestine, dating it to the second half of the 6th century c.e. The decline in wine production in the region had a direct effect on the rapid abatement of Elusa, the main city of the Negev, and Shivta, a wealthy large village in the western Negev Highlands. Consequently, the extensive system of industrial farms that formed the hub of the flourishing wine industry declined at the same time. This article suggests connecting these events with changes in the patterns of demand, supply, and production of the “sweet gift of Bacchus,” taking into consideration regional aspects, environmental fluctuations, economic transformations, and the decline of consumption markets.

One‐year‐long evaluation of non‐rainfall water available to soil biocrusts in the Negev Highlands

AbstractSoil biocrusts abound in deserts, but yet little agreement exists regarding their water sources. Most researchers regard non‐rainfall water (NRW), particularly dew as an important water source for soil biocrusts, but nevertheless, evidence from the Negev suggests that following the nocturnal soil heat efflux, NRW is drastically reduced. The possible contribution of NRW to 3‐ to 5‐mm‐tall lichens, which are less impacted by the warm nocturnal surface temperatures, poses an additional challenge. For this end, NRW obtained by cloths attached to the soil surface and cloths located at a 5‐mm height above ground were measured, accompanied by periodic temperature measurements. As for the cyanobacteria and the 1‐mm‐tall lichens, NRW did not reach the necessary threshold required for the performance of net photosynthesis by cyanobacterial (0.1 mm) or chlorolichens (0.05 mm) but was occasionally reached at 5‐mm height above ground. Nevertheless, when the average amount obtained at 1‐mm intervals (mimicking the length of the lichen thallus) along the 5‐mm height was calculated, it either fell below the necessary threshold or was too low during daytime to compensate for the carbon loss during nighttime respiration. The apparent incapability of NRW to provide sufficient water to sustain the 3‐ to 5‐mm‐tall lichens in the Negev Highlands is supported by the confinement of these lichens to north‐facing rock terraces (ledges), where they may benefit from additional water through runoff. One may therefore conclude that NRW may not be regarded as a meaningful water source for the Negev biocrusts, whether composed of cyanobacteria or of 1‐ to 5‐mm‐tall lichens.

The Secret in the Desert: Preliminary Conclusions from the Excavation of a Unique Burial Complex in the Negev Highlands

In the course of a salvage excavation in the centre of the Negev highlands, near Tlalim Junction and Kibbutz Tlalim, a unique burial site dated to the middle of the first millennium BCE was discovered. The site appears to be located at the head of an ancient crossroad, and it seems that for generations it was used for communal graves and associated burial rituals carried out by travellers. Dozens of burials were found in the structures, along with an extraordinary wealth of special finds, most of which date to the middle of the first millennium BCE, from the end of the Iron II and the beginning of the Persian period. The site opens a gateway to multidisciplinary research related to identifying the origin of the finds, identifying the source of the burials and those interred, understanding its ritual significance, understanding the manner of burial and identifying ancient trade routes.

The utilization and extinction of Juniper trees from the Negev desert (Israel) - Data from a late 6th–5th millennia site of Har Harif

The excavation of Har Harif 45, a campsite radiometrically dated to the 6th–5th millennia BCE, in the Negev highlands (Israel) uncovered many charcoals determined as Phoenician juniper (Juniperus phoenicea). Today, Phoenician juniper is absent from the Negev desert and can only be found on the ridges of northern Sinai (Egypt) and Jordan.Based on the relative abundance of polished stone axes and adzes found in Har Harif 45 in comparison to other contemporaneous sites, we suggest that the extinction of juniper trees from the Negev highlands was caused mainly by intensive and selective cutting of this highly beneficial woody species. On a wider view, the disappearance of Juniperus phoenicea from the Negev Desert provides a good example of human impact on the natural environment during the transition from hunter-gather societies to late Pottery Neolithic (and later periods of the 6th–5th millennia BC) pastoralist societies, where a greater population density increased the demand for natural resources such as juniper wood. We show that the archaeological evidence from Har Harif 45 combined with the archaeobotanical data sheds new light on the human influence on the Negev highland environment during the late 6th and 5th millennia BC.

Reclamation of ancient agricultural terraces in the Negev Highlands; soil, archeological, hydrological, and topographical perspectives

AbstractAncient terraced lands are considered badlands without profitable utilization except for urbanization. Nevertheless, this attitude prevents further agricultural utilization in addition to the loss of archaeological data. The study hypothesizes that the main influencing part in these systems is the retaining walls (RW). An analysis of their current influence on soil fertility, stability, and hydrology will indicate their adequate reclamation strategy. The objectives are to gather the influences and correlate them to the RW constructional state. In the Yeroham Hills, three parallel located terraced systems (one on the Wadi Shualim channel and the other, which is located on its banks) were studied. Their ancient agricultural utilization was dated, after in‐site excavations, to the Roman until early Islamic eras. Ten representative RWs were chosen, five from each terraced system. Their influences on the soil fertility, hydrology, and physical properties of the adjacent soil and 2 m ahead (the terrace) were studied. The finding indicates that the RW serves as a physical ecosystem engineer with positive influences on soil organic matter (0.5% higher content compared to the terrace) and land stability properties (maturated soil biocrust and higher aggregate stability). Comparison of the finding from both terraced irrigation systems, which differ in their conservation state, enables to determine the agricultural utilization and land stabilization after an adequate reclamation strategy, which is based on the RWs constructional parameters analyzed in‐site, and adaption to the current floodwater paths. The study's principles and analysis scheme enable the study and conservation of similar areas worldwide for increased utilization and profitability.

The Formation of Edom: An Archaeological Critique of the “Early Edom” Hypothesis

According to the Early Edom hypothesis, the late Iron II kingdom of Edom in southern Jordan emerged from the complex copper-producing society of early Iron II Faynan. A review of the archaeological evidence from the final publication of the Faynan excavations demonstrates that the hypothesis is untenable. There was a chronological gap of 50 to 100+ years between the end of settlement at Faynan, at the end of the 9th century b.c.e., and the earliest settlement in the Edom Highlands; evidence of decreasing social and political complexity at Faynan; no continuity in the scale or technology of copper production at Faynan between early and late Iron II; and completely different settlement patterns at early Iron II Faynan and in the late Iron II highlands, indicating a different economic and social basis. The evidence suggests that early Iron II Faynan was short-lived and linked to the contemporary society in the Negev Highlands, through administration, economy, and workforce. The kingdom of Edom and late Iron II settlement developed in the late 8th century b.c.e. under Assyrian stimulus, which had a direct impact on the expansion of settlement and agriculture, the production of pottery and other goods, and the Arabian trade across the Negev.

The dynamic of the eco-hydrological interrelations between shrubs and biocrusts in the Negev shrublands: Empiric assessments and perspectives for shrubland rehabilitation

A vast part of the drylands worldwide is characterized by patchy vegetation coverage expressed by shrubby patches and biocrusts inter-patch space (BIS) between them. Recent studies indicated that the BIS microorganism species richness increases similarly to shrubs. They became denser during the shrubland maturation, leading to possible ecohydrological interrelations between the shrubs and the BIS. Nevertheless, these interrelations are not clearly understood and all are suited to mature and well-established shrublands. The study hypothesizes that a hydrological interrelation, which relates to the main limiting factor in such arid (or semiarid) areas, exists between the shrub, its patch, and the BIS and are changed from the shrub establishment until well established patchy form. The objective of this study is to determine empirically the factors that influence the ecohydrological interrelation from unsettled shrub BIS, shrub establishment, to mature shrub patch. The study was carried out on typical arid shrubland in Sde- Zin, the Central Negev Highlands, in 2019. The study analyzed the chemical, physical and hydrological characteristics of eight common shrub species, their patches, and their BIS. The finding indicates that mature biocrust in the interpatch is characterized by high water mobilization of 70%, which is a little less than the one achieved on a rocky coverage (80%). The study finding enables to create a holistic mechanism for the shrubs and BIS developments and the formed hydrological interrelations. In the initial stage before the shrub settlement, the BIS is characterized by low water mobilization ability. In the second and third stages, the settled shrub gradually forms a patch, while the change of the BIS is small. In the last one, changes in BIS led to enhanced water mobilization to the shrub patch. From then, rainfall and adequate land management may lead to patch enlargement and increased biomass, resulting in shrubland rehabilitation.

The Avdat in Late Antiquity Project: uncovering the Early Islamic phases of a Byzantine town in the Negev Highlands

Three seasons of archaeological fieldwork by the Avdat in Late Antiquity Project have yielded new evidence of intensive Early Islamic activity in the late antique town of Avdat in Israel's Negev Highlands. This evidence has important implications for understanding the fate of such towns in the region during the Byzantine–Islamic transition.