Negative Self-conscious Emotions Research Articles

Conceptualising and measuring consumer perceptions of brand wastefulness

AbstractConsumers consider the wastefulness of brands and are predisposed to exhibit aversion to those perceived as wasteful. However, there is a lack of consensus on how consumers associate wastefulness with brands and how this impacts downstream consumer brand responses. Integrating conceptualisations in the literature with original consumers’ insights, we conceptualise consumer perceived brand wastefulness (CPBW) as a multidimensional construct comprising perceptions of (1) unnecessary consumption, (2) inefficient utilisation, and (3) tangible waste. A multi-phase scale development process validated a CPBW scale measuring each dimension. The scale distinguished between consumer perceptions of more vs less wasteful brands and demonstrated CPBW as conceptually distinct from perceptions of brands’ environmental friendliness and corporate social responsibility (CSR). CPBW was related to unfavourable consumer brand responses, including a reduced purchase likelihood, lower willingness to pay a price premium, negative self-conscious emotions, and lower perceptions of brand quality and credibility. We discuss the theoretical and managerial implications and directions for future research.

Prevalence of experiencing public humiliation and its effects on victims’ mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Public humiliation is a negative self-conscious emotion that results from experiencing public humiliation; that is, being humiliated in public in front of witnesses. In the current study, experiencing public humiliation refers to the humiliation that is caused by a perpetrator or perpetrators with negative intent at a location that is accessible or visible to the public and in the presence of a witness(es). To investigate the settings where public humiliation occurs, its prevalence, and its impact on victims’ mental health, a systematic review and meta-analysis approach were employed. A total of 33 studies with a sample size of 40,468 were included in the current study. The findings demonstrate the behaviour of public humiliation occurred in a variety of settings (e.g., medical training, healthcare provision, schools) and population groups. The pooled prevalence of experiencing public humiliation was 34.9% (95%CI [0.266, 0.442]). The pooled effect size of experiencing public humiliation on victims’ mental health outcomes was OR = 1.878, 95%CI [1.550, 2.276]. Public humiliation appears to have a substantial impact on victims’ mental health (including symptoms of emotional distress, anxiety, depression; increased stress; posttraumatic stress disorder; suicidal ideation/attempt; Stockholm syndrome, burnout, and being traumatised). A potential mental health pathway model depicting the mechanism underlying the relationship between experiencing public humiliation and mental health is proposed. Recommendations are provided for future research to isolate public humiliation to understand its specific effect on mental health and for developing interventions.

The female athletic ideal — Friend or foe? Fit, thin, and athletic body ideals and their associations with women’s body image

The internalization of body ideals is a critical predictor of body image and health behaviors. Thin and athletic ideal internalization in women need to be elucidated. The aims of the current study included: (i) describing the endorsement of thin and athletic body ideals among women and (ii) examining group differences in negative and positive self-conscious emotions and body image. Participants (N = 392 women; Mage = 25.6, SD = 5.3 years) were assigned to Fit Ideal (n = 110), Thin Ideal (n = 83), Athletic Ideal (n = 55), and Low Internalization (n = 144) groups based on scores for thin and athletic internalization. Three multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to examine Body Ideal group differences on negative appearance and fitness self-conscious emotions, and positive self-conscious emotions and body image. The Athletic Ideal and Low Internalization groups generally scored lower on negative self-conscious emotions and higher on positive self-conscious emotions and body image in comparison to the Fit and Thin Ideal groups (Cohen’s d =.35 to 1.15). Results suggest that differing levels of thin and athletic internalization may intersect uniquely with women’s body-related self-conscious emotions and positive body image and thus may have distinct effects on women’s health and behavior.

Self-construals and health communications: The persuasive roles of guilt and shame

We investigate the roles of guilt and shame appeals in health communications depending on recipients’ self-construal. Although guilt and shame are negative self-conscious emotions, we hypothesize that guilt appeals are more effective in leveraging compliance among recipients with independent self-construals, whereas shame appeals are more persuasive among recipients with interdependent self-construals. The findings across four experimental studies are consistent with this hypothesis, with guilt (shame) appeals motivating participants with independent (interdependent) self-construals in domains of eating healthy, responsible drinking, quitting smoking, and staying-at-home intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Further, we provide evidence that challenge (threat) appraisal mediates the effect of guilt (shame) appeals among independents (interdependents). These findings have meaningful implications, more broadly in the use of emotions in health communications, and offer social marketers, government officials, and policymakers a better recognition of how to persuade individuals to improve their own and society’s well-being.

Self-disgust in patients with borderline personality disorder. The associations with alexithymia, emotion dysregulation, and comorbid psychopathology

BackgroundSelf-disgust is a negative self-conscious emotion, which has been linked with borderline personality disorder (BPD). However, it has not yet been investigated in relation to both emotion dysregulation and alexithymia, which are recognized as crucial to BPD. Therefore, the aim of our study was to measure these variables and examine the possible mediational role of emotional alterations and comorbid anxiety and depression symptoms in shaping self-disgust in patients with BPD and healthy controls (HCs).MethodsIn total, the study included 100 inpatients with BPD and 104 HCs. Participants completed: the Self-Disgust Scale (SDS), Disgust Scale – Revised (DS-R), Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), Emotion Dysregulation Scale short version (EDS-short), Borderline Personality Disorder Checklist (BPD Checklist), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD-R).ResultsInpatients with BPD showed higher self-disgust, alexithymia, emotion dysregulation, core and comorbid symptoms levels, and lower disgust sensitivity. Alexithymia, emotion dysregulation, and trait anxiety partially mediated between BPD diagnosis and self-disgust. The relationship between the severity of BPD symptoms and self-disgust was fully mediated by alexithymia, emotion dysregulation, depressive symptoms, and trait anxiety.ConclusionsThe results of our study may imply the contribution of emotion dysregulation, alexithymia, and comorbid psychopathology to self-referenced disgust in BPD.

Men’s Experiences of Self-Conscious Emotions Following Childhood Sexual Abuse

ABSTRACT Rates of detection and disclosure of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) are believed to be lower in males due to gender socialization fears. The experience of CSA is thought to increase negative self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt, embarrassment, anger, and fear). Such self-conscious emotions have been associated with a range of mental and public health issues. As there has been no research to date that has explored the experience of shame and guilt within the wider context of self-conscious emotional states for males, this research aimed to explore men’s experiences of self-conscious emotions following CSA. Nine semi-structured interviews with males were completed. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis identified three themes: “Invisible In This World” captures participants’ isolating circumstances surrounding their CSA, and how this impacted their perception of not being protected or able to speak out; “The Emotional Fallout” describes the overwhelming emotions experienced as a result of the CSA and how such emotions have impacted participants lives, and “Learning To Live With The Wound That May Never Heal” addresses how participants have spent their lives living with the abuse and how it’s a process to learn how to adapt and live with the abuse. Findings suggest there is a clear need to recognize the role and power of self-conscious emotions in male CSA, especially for healthcare professionals and services supporting males with CSA. Without addressing such self-conscious emotions, males who have experienced CSA are at risk of enduring the emotional fallout throughout their lives.

How do People Betray in Relationships? Understanding the Process of Infidelity in Dating Relationships

ABSTRACT Most studies of infidelity have looked into motivational factors, however, the process of how infidelity happens is not much researched. The present study investigates the process of infidelity as well as how individuals resolve it. Forty individuals (21 males and 19 females) with self-reported infidelity (Mage = 27.15) participated in the study. The study followed a narrative methodology, where the narratives of the cheating incidents were collected and analyzed. For the analysis, the transcripts were coded and grouped using Quirkos software. The results showed two different processes involved in infidelity- spontaneous and planned cheating. While spontaneous cheating happens in the spur of the moment, planned cheating is a well-thought action. The infidelity process mostly includes relationship dissatisfaction, entry of alternatives, triggers, bonding, disclosure/non-disclosure, post-infidelity reflection, consequences, and resolution, however, not necessary in the same order and all. In cases where the individuals engaged in spontaneous infidelity, the infidelity process started with the alternative entry and the trigger played a very important role. However, for infidelity instances where the individual had some time to think, it started with some risk factors, which may either be relationship dissatisfaction or the personal characteristics of the perpetrator. Participants faced negative self-conscious emotions like guilt, regret, and self-justification for their actions. Some unexpected and positive consequences of infidelity were also seen such as emotional independence and improved relationships. The study would provide guidance and act as a base for further work on the infidelity process.

Guilt Proneness and Prosocial Behaviour Intentions across University Students: A Predictive Study

“A dispositional tendency to experience negative self-conscious emotions following transgressions or failures to live up to one's own or others' standards is termed as guilt proneness” (Tangney et al., 2007). Guilt is usually seen in negative light and often labelled as uncomfortable and guilt proneness is labelled undesirable, but a common motivation for individuals to engage in prosocial behaviours is to manage the guilt in their lives. The deliberate actions individuals engage in, to benefit others or society as a whole, sometimes even at a cost to themselves are termed as prosocial behaviour intentions. These actions can include acts of kindness, cooperation, volunteering, sharing, donating, and helping others in need (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989). It was hypothesized that guilt proneness acts as a predictive factor for prosocial behaviour intentions in an individual. Guilt and Shame Proneness (GASP), developed by Cohen et al. (2011), and Prosocial Behavioural Intentions Scale (PBIS), developed by Baumsteiger & Siegel (2018) were used to measure guilt proneness and prosocial behaviour intentions, on a data set of 155 university students, and this study explored the relationship between these variables through simple linear regression and further, a fitted regression model was formulated. Inferential and descriptive statistical tests were used to study guilt proneness and prosocial behaviour intentions across various demographic variables. The findings of this study indicate that guilt proneness acts as significant predictor of prosocial behaviour intentions and there were statistically significant differences in the mean scores of guilt proneness across age groups and annual household incomes. These results are discussed along with limitations of the study and the scope for future research.

Trapped Between Goal Conflict and Availability Norm?

Abstract: An increasing number of studies indicate that individuals have difficulties in exerting self-control over media use, such as mobile messaging. Specifically, individuals frequently experience that their messenger use conflicts with primary goals (e.g., work tasks), which may cause negative self-conscious emotions such as guilt. At the same time, not checking and answering messages violates a now widely established availability norm, which may trigger negative self-conscious emotions as well. The current study, therefore, tests how goal conflicts and connection cues interact in influencing users’ negative self-conscious emotions about their messenger usage behavior. Drawing on self-control research in conjunction with self-determination theory and theoretical approaches to social norms, we derived hypotheses on the boundary conditions under which the frequency of messenger use causes negative self-conscious emotions. We thereby significantly extend previous research on the self-regulation of mobile media use, which largely assumes that self-control failure results from users’ intrinsic motivation to experience need satisfaction and pleasure and tends to overlook the fact that mediated communication is often extrinsically motivated due to the availability norm. The hypotheses were tested based on a preregistered laboratory experiment.

Stage-emotion compatibility and the effectiveness of antismoking campaigns in South Korea: tailoring guilt and shame appeals to individuals in different stages of change

ABSTRACT In many domains of health risk prevention and management, tailoring messages specifically for different stages of change is critical. In the context of smoking cessation, this research represents an initial attempt to discover stage-specific affective profiles in terms of guilt versus shame. It then examines whether stage-congruent emotional appeals increase the persuasiveness of antismoking campaigns. Study 1 found that participants felt more negative self-conscious emotions as they entered the later stages of smoking cessation, showing more salient emotional states of guilt rather than shame. Study 2 found that stage-emotion compatibility, such as that exhibited by participants in the early stages of change, was not altered by emotional appeals regardless of the emotional type. In contrast, those in the later stages of change perceived guilt rather than shame appeals to be more effective and displayed greater smoking cessation intention. Through this, current research takes an important step toward theoretically identifying the affective states associated with different stages of change for smoking cessation and helps practitioners use emotional appeals effectively and appropriately in public health campaigns.

Young children show negative emotions after failing to help others.

Self-conscious emotions, such as guilt and shame, motivate the adherence to social norms, including to norms for prosociality. The relevance of an observing audience to the expression of negative self-conscious emotions remains poorly understood. Here, in two studies, we investigated the influence of being observed on 4- to 5-year-old children's (N = 161) emotional response after failing to help someone in need and after failing to complete their own goal. As an index of children's emotional response, we recorded the change in children's upper body posture using a motion depth sensor imaging camera. Failing to help others lowered children's upper body posture regardless of whether children were observed by an audience or not. Children's emotional response was similar when they failed to help and when they failed to complete their own goal. In Study 2, 5-year-olds showed a greater decrease in upper body posture than 4-year-olds. Our findings suggest that being observed is not a necessary condition for young children to express a negative self-conscious emotion after failing to help or after failing to complete their own goal. We conclude that 5-year-olds, more so that 4-year-olds, show negative emotions when they fail to adhere to social norms for prosociality.

The shame spiral of addiction: Negative self-conscious emotion and substance use.

The bidirectional associations between negative self-conscious emotions such as shame and guilt and substance use are poorly understood. Longitudinal research is needed to examine the causes, consequences, and moderators of negative self-conscious emotions in people who use substances. Using parallel process latent growth curve modeling, we assessed bidirectional associations between shame and guilt and substance use (i.e., number of days in the past 30 used stimulants, alcohol to intoxication, other substances, or injected drugs) as well as the moderating role of positive emotion. Emotions were assessed using the Differential Emotions Scale. The sample included 110 sexual minority cisgender men with biologically confirmed recent methamphetamine use, enrolled in a randomized controlled trial in San Francisco, CA. Participants self-reported emotions and recent substance use behaviors over six time points across 15 months. Higher initial levels of shame were associated with slower decreases in stimulant use over time (b = 0.23, p = .041) and guilt was positively associated with stimulant use over time (β = 0.85, p < .0001). Initial levels of guilt and alcohol use were positively related (b = 0.29, p = .040), but over time, they had a negative relationship (β = -0.99, p < .0001). Additionally, higher initial levels of other drug use were associated with slower decreases in shame over time (b = 0.02, p = .041). All results were independent of depression, highlighting the specific role of self-conscious emotions. Shame and guilt are barriers to reducing stimulant use, and expanded efforts are needed to mitigate the deleterious effects of these self-conscious emotions in recovery from a stimulant use disorder.

Associations of self-compassion with shame, guilt, and training motivation after sport-specific daily stress – a smartphone study

ABSTRACT By applying a diary study design, we investigated the role of self-compassion during sport-specific daily stress (SSDS) with regard to the negative self-conscious emotions of shame and guilt and training motivation. We hypothesised that self-compassion would protect athletes from certain self-conscious emotions, namely shame, after SSDS. We also predicted that self-compassion would either increase or decrease the relationship between stress and motivation. Ninety-six athletes (Mage = 22.14, SD = 5.92) reported their level of self-compassion and evaluated their trainings and/or competitions over three weeks in terms of experienced stress, guilt, shame and subsequent training motivation on their smartphones. Multilevel analyses showed that SSDS was associated with more negative self-conscious emotions and reduced training motivation. Moreover, self-compassion weakened the effect of SSDS on shame and was not correlated with training motivation. We discuss the results with regard to sport psychology practice and future research.

Self-disgust as a potential mechanism underlying the association between body image disturbance and suicidal thoughts and behaviours

This study examined whether self-disgust added incremental variance to and mediated the multivariate association between measures of body image disturbance and suicidal thoughts and behaviours. We hypothesized that self-disgust would be associated with suicidal ideation above the effects of body image disturbance, and that self-disgust would mediate the relationship between body image disturbance and suicidal ideation. A total of N=728 participants completed The Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire, The Self-Disgust Scale, and the Suicidal Behaviours Questionnaire-Revised. Suicidality was significantly related to increased levels of self-disgust and body image disturbance, whereas self-disgust was associated with greater body image disturbance. Linear regression analysis showed that self-disgust was associated with suicidal thoughts and behaviours, over and above the effects of body image disturbance. Multiple mediation modelling further showed that self-disgust mediated the relationship between body image disturbance and suicidal thoughts and behaviours. Our findings highlight the role of self-disgust in the context of body image disturbance and support the notion that body image disturbance is associated with aversive self-conscious emotions. Interventions aiming to reduce the risk of suicidality in people with body image disturbance may address self-disgust and negative self-conscious emotions.

Negative self-conscious emotions in women with borderline personality disorder as assessed by an Implicit Association Test.

Shame and guilt are vital in borderline personality disorder (BPD), and previous research using explicit measures has consistently found elevated levels of these self-conscious emotions (SCE) in those with BPD. However, these measures cannot elucidate implicit processes that are equally important, as they guide the perceptions of the self and influence behavioral responses. Thus, we aimed to extend the research on SCE in BPD utilizing an indirect latency-based measure. A total of 29 female inpatients with BPD and 21 healthy women were assessed with a shame and a guilt self-concept Implicit Association Test (IAT). These two tasks use reaction time measurements to determine the relative strengths of associations between the self versus others and shame versus pride and guilt versus innocence. In addition, participants completed questionnaires capturing shame, guilt, and BPD symptoms. Women with BPD displayed significantly more shame- and guilt-prone implicit self-concepts than the control group (d = 1.2 and d = 0.7, respectively). They also scored significantly higher on explicit measures of shame and guilt. Although explicitly and implicitly assessed shame and guilt were strongly associated with borderline pathology, multivariate models indicated that solely self-reported, but not implicitly measured, guilt was consistently related to all BPD outcomes. Shame was only associated with the number of BPD criteria. This study extends previous findings on SCE in BPD, in that women with BPD do not only explicitly conceive themselves as more shame- and guilt-prone but also exhibit implicitly more shame and guilt self-concepts than healthy controls. Our results may hold clinical and therapeutic implications. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Doping behaviour in mixed martial arts athletes: the roles of social norms and self-regulatory efficacy

ABSTRACT The present study examined, for the first time, the multivariate association between social norms, negative self-conscious emotions, and self-regulatory efficacy and doping intentions in an international sample of MMA athletes, with an emphasis on moderation and mediation effects. We also examined whether MMA athletes with different doping experiences also differed in doping-related self-conscious emotions, self-regulatory efficacy, social norms and doping intentions. A cross-sectional survey-based design was used, and structured anonymous online questionnaires were completed by 249 MMA athletes from 16 countries. Three groups of users were identified based on self-reported doping use: never users, never user contemplators, and ever users. One-way ANOVA showed that athletes with differed doping experiences gave significantly different scores in social norms, self-conscious emotions, self-regulatory efficacy, and doping intentions. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that doping intentions were significantly associated with perceiving greater social approval of doping among referent others (injunctive norms), anticipating less negative self-conscious emotions from doping, and with lower levels of self-regulatory efficacy, after controlling for the effect of past doping use. Moderated regression analysis showed that self-conscious emotions did not interact with social norms in predicting doping intentions. Regression-based mediation analysis further showed that self-regulatory efficacy significantly mediated the association of injunctive norms and self-conscious emotions with doping intentions. Our findings highlight the role of social norms and self-conscious emotions in the decision-making process underlying doping in MMA athletes. The practical implications of our findings are discussed within the context of clean sport education and related campaigns to prevent doping in MMA.

Higher Trait Levels of Guilt may Protect Against Gambling, Whereas Higher State Levels Lead to Riskier Behaviour.

Research on the role of affect in problem gambling remains scarce to date, although it has been proposed that trait-levels of negative self-conscious emotions (SCEs) could be potential risk factors. We report two studies investigating the relationship between negative SCEs, gambling, and risky behavior. In the first study, we investigated shame, guilt and self-disgust in a group of problem-gamblers and control non-gamblers. In the second study, we investigated if experimentally manipulating state levels of guilt, using a narration-induction paradigm, in students with different levels of gambling behavior, would influence their behavior in the Balloon Analog Risk Task. We found that problem gamblers had significantly lower trait-levels of guilt when we adjusted for the influence of depression and anxiety symptoms (p = .008). Problem gamblers also exhibited lower levels of shame, but this difference seemed to be driven by guilt. Lower levels of guilt were significantly associated with higher levels of trait impulsivity (p = .004). In the second study, gamblers had higher state levels of guilt than non-gamblers at the outset, and the narration paradigm successfully induced guilt (p = .001). After the guilt induction, the group of gamblers had significantly less risky behaviour (lower number of pumps) than the group of non-gamblers (p = .021). However, this was primarily driven by an increase in risky behaviour in the non-gamblers (p = .006). Thus, overall our findings suggest that higher trait levels of guilt may act as a protective factor for gambling, whereas high state levels of guilt lead to riskier behaviour but only in people who are not gamblers.

When impulsive behaviours do not equal self-control failures: the (added) value of temptation enactments

Most work on self-control and impulsivity typically assumes, more or less tacitly, that people value self-control as more important than succumbing to temptations. According to this narrative, people regard impulsive behaviours as ‘failures’ of self-control and experience negative self-evaluations such as feelings of guilt or shame in response. Here, we direct attention to a neglected but crucial meta-behavioural valuation dimension of impulsive behaviour. We posit that individual differences in people's valuation of temptation enactment (VOTE) qualify whether and to what extent impulsive behaviours trigger negative self-evaluations and whether and to what extent people feel motivated to self-improve. Using a newly constructed VOTE scale, we first show that individual differences in VOTE can be reliably measured and clearly distinguished from traditional impulsivity or self-control scales (Studies 1–3; total N = 576). Across three subsequent studies (total N = 460), we then demonstrate that high VOTE, as compared with low VOTE, reduces the link between impulsive behaviours and negative self-conscious emotions (Studies 4 and 5), as well as between past impulsive behaviour and self-improvement motivation (Study 6). These findings have implications for the discourse on self-control failure and for the link between impulsive behaviour and self-evaluation, self-improvement motivation, and well-being.

Differential effects of abstract and concrete processing on the reactivity of basic and self-conscious emotions

ABSTRACT The present research examines the influence of different processing modes (abstract vs. concrete) on the intensity of negative basic emotions (anger, fear) and self-conscious emotions (guilt, shame). We suggest that the cognitive appraisals underlying self-conscious emotions are relatively more abstract and less concrete than the appraisals underlying basic emotions. Consequently, we predicted that abstract processing would increase the intensity of self-conscious emotions and decrease the intensity of basic emotions, whereas concrete processing would increase the intensity of basic emotions and decrease the intensity of self-conscious emotions. We tested this prediction in four experiments. In Experiments 1 and 2, concrete processing led to more intense anger than abstract processing, and abstract processing led to more intense guilt than concrete processing. In Experiment 3a, concrete processing increased the intensity of fear, and in Experiment 3b, concrete processing decreased the intensity of shame. Our findings highlight the importance of considering the emotion’s underlying appraisals when reflecting on one’s emotional experience.

Chinese and Canadian Identity on Responses to the Experience of Shame and Guilt

Negative self-conscious emotions (shame, guilt) support self-regulation to social norms, which may be part of the identity development process. This study addressed whether cultural background affected this process. European Canadian (EC, N = 99), Chinese Canadian (CC, N = 86), international Chinese students in Canada (IC, N = 65) and mainland Chinese (MC, N = 69) undergraduates read 18 scenarios describing norm violations, rating each scenario on a Shame and Guilt Self-Regulation Scale (SGSRS). MANOVAs showed that MCs endorsed more approach responses (i.e., problem focus coping, support seeking) to the scenarios than CC and EC. Gender differences also emerged; women endorsed more approach strategies to shame than men and less withdrawal (denial). Cultural differences to both shame and guilt did not extend to first generation CCs, who had grown up in North America. Results suggest that cultural norms moderate how self-conscious emotions affect the development of some aspects of identity.